Surgical techniques for implanting implantable cardioverter defibrillators in children and infants.

Implantable cardioverter defibrillators (ICDs) are now being used in children. ICDs can be used to prevent sudden cardiac death caused by not only congenital heart defects, but also various non-structural diseases, such as long QT syndrome. However, a standard implantation technique for children, especially infants, has not yet been established. As the surgical implantation in infants is not amenable to transvenous lead placement, it was necessary to choose from epicardial, subcutaneous and pericardial ICD systems. However, many of these systems are associated with high rates of late complications. Lead fracture, insulation breakage, migration, buckling or crinkling of the patch lead and constrictive pericarditis have been reported as the most common lead-related complications. An increase in the defibrillation threshold is another issue that must be considered when using an ICD in a child or infant. Further studies on the outcomes, psychosomatic impact and other specific complications in the pediatric population need to be considered. The clinical use of ICDs in infants is still limited. Therefore, it is important to have many surgical options available so that the treatment can be custom-tailored to suit individual patients.