Grasping with the foot: goal and motor expertise in action observation.

Action observation typically induces an online inner simulation of the observed movements. Here we investigate whether action observation merely activates, in the observer, the muscles involved in the observed movement or also muscles that are typically used to achieve the observed action goal. In a first experiment, hand and foot motor areas were stimulated by means of transcranial magnetic stimulation, while participants viewed a typical hand action (grasping) or a nonspecific action (stepping over an object) performed by either a hand or a foot. Hand motor evoked potentials (MEPs) increased for grasping and stepping over actions performed by the hand and for grasping actions performed by the foot. Conversely, foot MEPs increased only for actions performed by the foot. In a second experiment, participants viewed a typical hand action (grasping a pencil) and a typical foot action (pressing a foot-pedal) performed by either a hand or a foot. Again, hand MEPs increased not only during the observation of both actions performed by the hand but also for grasping actions performed by the foot. Foot MEPs increased not only during the observation of grasping and pressing actions performed by the foot but also for pressing actions performed by the hand. This evidence indicates that motor activations by action observation occur also in the muscles typically used to perform the observed action, even when the action is executed by an unusual effector, hence suggesting a double coding of observed actions: a strict somatotopic coding and an action goal coding based on the observer's motor expertise.