Environmental factors influencing the prevalence of a Clostridium botulinum type C/D mosaic strain in nonpermanent Mediterranean wetlands.

Between 1978 and 2008, 13 avian botulism outbreaks were recorded in the wetlands of Mancha Húmeda (central Spain). These outbreaks caused the deaths of around 20,000 birds from over 50 species, including globally endangered white-headed ducks (Oxyura leucoceophala). Here, a significant association was found between the number of dead birds recorded in each botulism outbreak and the mean temperature in July (always >26°C). The presence of Clostridium botulinum type C/D in wetland sediments was detected by real-time PCR (quantitative PCR [qPCR]) in 5.8% of 207 samples collected between 2005 and 2008. Low concentrations of Cl(-) and high organic matter content in sediments were significantly associated with the presence of C. botulinum. Seventy-five digestive tracts of birds found dead during botulism outbreaks were analyzed; C. botulinum was present in 38.7% of them. The prevalence of C. botulinum was 18.2% (n = 22 pools) in aquatic invertebrates (Chironomidae and Corixidae families) and 33.3% (n = 18 pools) in necrophagous invertebrates (Sarcophagidae and Calliphoridae families), including two pools of adult necrophagous flies collected around bird carcasses. The presence of the bacteria in the adult fly form opens up new perspectives in the epidemiology of avian botulism, since these flies may be transporting C. botulinum from one carcass to another.