Evolution of covered stents in the contemporary era: clinical application, materials and manufacturing strategies using nanotechnology.

Endovascular stents have revolutionised the field of interventional cardiology. Despite their excellent clinical outcome complications associated with percutaneous stent implantation following the procedure have remained a major drawback in their widespread use. To overcome such limitations, a number of novel endovascular stents have emerged including a covered stent wrapped in a thin membrane sleeve. As well as prevention of complications associated with stenting, covered stents owing to their physical barrier are used as the treatment option of choice for trauma devices during emergency situations and to treat a number of pathological disease states. The aim of this review is to provide the reader with an overall objective outlook in the use of covered stents as a treatment option in a number of vascular complications and addresses their design and materials used in the manufacturing process. In addition, new strategies are highlighted and future prospects with the emergence of novel smart alloys for 3D scaffolds and the use of nanotechnology in the development of nanocomposite materials.