HDAC inhibitors: roles of DNA damage and repair.

Histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACis) increase gene expression through induction of histone acetylation. However, it remains unclear whether specific gene expression changes determine the apoptotic response following HDACis administration. Herein, we discuss evidence that HDACis trigger in cancer and leukemia cells not only widespread histone acetylation but also actual increases in reactive oxygen species (ROS) and DNA damage that are further increased following treatment with DNA-damaging chemotherapies. While the origins of ROS production are not completely understood, mechanisms, including inflammation and altered antioxidant signaling, have been reported. While the generation of ROS is an explanation, at least in part, for the source of DNA damage observed with HDACi treatment, DNA damage can also be independently induced by changes in the DNA repair activity and chromatin remodeling factors. Recent development of sirtuin inhibitors (SIRTis) has shown that, similar to HDACis, these drugs induce increases in ROS and DNA damage used singly, or in combination with HDACis and other drugs. Thus, induction of apoptosis by HDACis/SIRTis may result through oxidative stress and DNA damage mechanisms in addition to direct activation of apoptosis-inducing genes. Nevertheless, while DNA damage and stress responses could be of interest as markers for clinical responses, they have yet to be validated as markers for responses to HDACi treatment in clinical trials, alone, and in combination.