Mechanisms involved in alternariol-induced cell cycle arrest.

Alternariol (AOH), a mycotoxin produced by Alternaria sp, is often found as a contaminant in fruit and cereal products. Here we employed the murine macrophage cell line RAW 264.7 to test the hypothesis that AOH causes toxicity as a response to DNA damage. AOH at concentrations of 15-30μM almost completely blocked cell proliferation. Within 30min treatment, AOH (30μM) significantly increased the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Furthermore, DNA base oxidations as well as DNA strand breaks and/or alkaline labile sites were detected by the comet assay after 2h exposure of AOH. Cell death (mostly necrosis) was observed after prolonged exposure to the highest concentration of AOH (60μM for 24 and 48h) in our study. The DNA damage response involved phosphorylation (activation) of histone H2AX and check point kinase-1- and 2 (Chk-1/2). Moreover, AOH activated p53 and increased the expression of p21, Cyclin B, MDM2, and Sestrin 2; likewise the level of several miRNA was affected. AOH-induced Sestrin 2 expression was regulated by p53 and could at least partly be inhibited by antioxidants, suggesting a role of ROS in the response. Interestingly, the addition of antioxidants did not inhibit cell cycle arrest. Although the formation of ROS by itself was not directly linked cell proliferation, AOH-induced DNA damage and resulting transcriptional changes in p21, MDM2, and Cyclin B likely contribute to the reduced cell proliferation; while Sestrin 2 would contribute to the oxidant defense.