The transfer of antibiotic resistance from food to humans: facts, implications and future directions.

The food chain, from production to the consumer's kitchen, can be an important contributor to the development, persistence and dissemination of antibiotic-resistant (ART) microbes, including both ART foodborne pathogens and commensal bacteria. Many factors in the food chain, such as the antimicrobial compounds used and how they were used, microbial co-selection, fitness and persistence mechanisms, host lifestyle, and food treatment conditions, influence the antibiotic resistance (AR) cycle. Targeted mitigation strategies, such as those used in the dairy processing industry, can be effective in reducing the AR gene pool.