Flow cytometry and adenosine tri-phosphate analysis: alternative possibilities to evaluate major bacteriological changes in drinking water treatment and distribution systems.

An ever-growing need exists for rapid, quantitative and meaningful methods to quantify and characterize the effect of different treatment steps on the microbiological processes and events that occur during drinking water treatment and distribution. Here we compared cultivation-independent flow cytometry (FCM) and adenosine tri-phosphate (ATP) analysis with conventional cultivation-based microbiological methods, on water samples from two full-scale treatment and distribution systems. The two systems consist of nearly identical treatment trains, but their raw water quality and pre-treatment differed significantly. All of the drinking water treatment processes affected the microbiological content of the water considerably, but once treated, the finished water remained remarkably stable throughout the distribution system. Both the FCM and ATP data were able to describe the microbiology of the systems accurately, providing meaningful process data when combined with other parameters such as dissolved organic carbon analysis. Importantly, the results highlighted a complimentary value of the two independent methods: while similar trends were mostly observed, variations in ATP-per-cell values between water samples were adequately explained by differences in the FCM fingerprints of the samples. This work demonstrates the value of alternative microbial methods for process/system control, optimization and routine monitoring of the general microbial quality of water during treatment and distribution.