Database survey of anti-inflammatory plants in South America: a review.

Inflammation is a complex event linked to tissue damage whether by bacteria, physical trauma, chemical, heat or any other phenomenon. This physiological response is coordinated largely by a variety of chemical mediators that are released from the epithelium, the immunocytes and nerves of the lamina propria. However, if the factor that triggers the inflammation persists, the inflammation can become relentless, leading to an intensification of the lesion. The present work is a literature survey of plant extracts from the South American continent that have been reported to show anti-inflammatory activity. This review refers to 63 bacterial families of which the following stood out: Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Apocynaceae and Celastraceae, with their countries, parts used, types of extract used, model bioassays, organisms tested and their activity.

Introduction

Inflammation is the response of body to injury and danger. It is the central communication network and regulatory process that senses and controls threat, damage, containment, and healing, which are all critical aspects in the maintenance of the integrity of an organism [1].

This process occurs as a defensive response, which induces profound physiological adaptions triggered in an attempt to limit tissue damage and remove the pathogenic insult. Such mechanisms involve a complex series of events including dilatation of arterioles, venules and capillaries with increased vascular permeability, exudation of fluids, including plasma proteins, and leukocyte migration into the inflammatory area [2].

In response to injury or infection, the specialized cells of the first line, leukocytes (neutrophils and eosinophils polymorphonuclear-PMNs) migrate to the damaged regions with the aim of neutralizing and eliminating these harmful stimuli [3]. The mechanism of inflammation is attributed, in part, to release of reactive oxygen species (ROS) from activated neutrophils and macrophages [4]. ROS propagate inflammation by stimulating release of cytokines, such as interleukin-1, tumor necrosis factor-α, and interferon-γ, which stimulate recruitment of additional neutrophils and macrophages. Thus free radicals are important mediators that provoke or sustain inflammatory processes and, consequently, their neutralization by antioxidants and radical scavengers can attenuate inflammation [5,6].

A complex network of mediators, including cytokines and lipids, produced by endothelial cells, epithelial cells and tissue infiltrating leukocytes, characterizes the early phases of inflammation [7].

The clinical features of inflammation were described some 2000 years ago listed as the cardinal signs of inflammation: rubor (redness), tumor (swelling), heat (hyperthermia) and pain [8].

The combined action of the molecules attracts and activates leukocytes to the reactive site, promotes angiogenesis and tissue remodeling [7]. If this sequence of steps is rigorously followed, the acute inflammation will resolve without causing excessive damage to tissue, returning to homeostasis [3].

However, there are several clinical conditions where inflammation becomes chronic with excessive production of macrophage-derived mediators may lead to collateral damage to normal cells, which results in diseases, including atherosclerosis, bowel disease, rheumatoid arthritis glomerulonephritis, and septic shock [9].

Therefore, the classical anti-inflammatory agents glucocorticoids and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) can only alleviate symptoms without, however, altering the course of the disease [3].

The current anti-inflammatory therapy aims to control the cardinal signs of inflammation, antagonizing or blocking key pro-inflammatory mediators that are released at the beginning of an acute inflammatory response [3]. NSAIDs typically relieve inflammation and associated pain by inhibiting cyclooxygenase enzymes involved in the production of prostaglandins. These enzymes exist in two isoforms (COX-1 and COX-2) coded by distinct genes on different chromosomes [10]. Compounds that inhibit COX enzymes could therefore be considered to be potential anti-inflammatory drugs. However, many of the commonly used anti-inflammatory agents are becoming less acceptable due to serious adverse reactions such as gastric intolerance, bone marrow depression and water and salt retention, resulting from prolonged use [11].

Within this context, it is of fundamental importance to search for substances that can promote the resolution of inflammation, thus, homeostatic and modulatory, efficient and tolerated by the body [3].

Plants are an important source of biologically active natural products and are considered a promising avenue for the discovery of new drugs due to easy access and relatively low cost, since they naturally grow in relative abundance [12,13]. The development of standardized herbal medicines with proven efficacy and safety of use is an important source for increasing the access of people to medicines and to offer new therapeutic options [14].

So, can cite examples of plants with scientifically proven anti-inflammatory activity: Annona muricata, Glycine max, Orthosiphon stamineus, Caulerpa racemosa and Oenothera speciosa used in folk medicine [15-19].

Therefore, extracts or isolated compounds from natural products seems to be a promising strategy for developing anti-inflammatory drugs in search of a better therapeutic and quality of life for the patient [20].

In the course of our continuing search for bioactive natural products from plants, we have published reviews of extracts and compounds derived from plants with the following potential activities: inhibitors of mammary, uterine cervical and ovarian neoplasia [21-23]; inhibitors of HMG CoA reductase, angiotensina-converting enzyme and the enzyme acetylcholinesterase [24-26]; with central analgesic activity [27]; employed in prevention of osteoporosis [28]; for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease [29]; anticonvulsant and anxiety disorders [30,31]; with antileishmanial [32]; giardicidal [33]; antileprotic [34]; hypoglycemic [35] and antiinflammatory activities [36,37]; for the treatment of malaria [38]; with antiulcer activity [39-41] and effects of plant extracts on HIV-1 Protease [42]. Our group has also reviewed the medicinal and poisonous plants of the Northeastern region of Brazil [43,44], among other review articles [45-54]. So in this work, we reviewed the literature related to anti-inflammatory activity of the plants from South American countries.

Results and Discussion

It was possible in this review to list 175 species of medicinal plants with anti-inflammatory activity. Those species are distributed in 63 families of which the following stood out: Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Apocynaceae and Celastraceae with 37, 17, 11, 6 and 6 species, respectively, studied so far (Table 1).

Table 1.

Extracts of plants with anti-inflammatory activity studied in South America.

Family and Botanical name	Country	Part used	Type of extract	Model assay/way of route	Organism tested	Activity	Ref.
Acanthaceae
Justicia pectoralis var. stenophylla	Brazil	Dried leaf	Hydro-alcoholic ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[84]
	Brazil	Dried leaf	Hexane-acetone	Dextran-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Inactive	[84]
Agavaceae
Cordyline dracaenoides	Brazil	Dried rhizome	EtOH-H2O (50%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[85]
Alismataceae
Echinodorus grandiflorus	Brazil	Dried rhizome	MeOH ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[86]
	Brazil	Dried rhizome	MeOH ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[86]
Amaranthaceae
Alternanthera brasiliana	Brazil	Dried leaf	H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Route not given	Rat	Inactive	[87]
Pfaffia glomerata	Brazil	Dried root	EtOH (60%) ext	Acetic acid-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[88]
	Brazil	Dried root	EtOH (60%) ext	Acetic acid-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Active	[88]
Pfaffia iresinoides	Brazil	Dried root	Saponin fraction	Carrageenan-induced pleurisy/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[89]
	Brazil	Dried root	H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pleurisy/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[89]
	Brazil	Dried root	H2O ext	Cotton pellet granuloma/Intragastric	Rat	Inactive	[89]
	Brazil	Dried root	Saponin fraction	Cotton pellet granuloma/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[89]
Pfaffia paniculata	Brazil	Dried root	EtOH (20%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Active	[90]
	Brazil	Dried root	EtOH (60%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[91]
Pfaffia stenophylla	Brazil	Dried root	EtOH (20%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Active	[90]
Anacardiaceae
Anacardium occidentale	Brazil	Dried bark	Shell	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Gastric intubation	Rat	Active	[92]
	Brazil	Dried bark	Shell	Dextran-induced pedal edema/Gastric intubation	Rat	Inactive	[92]
	Brazil	Dried bark	Shell	Cotton pellet granuloma/IP	Rat	Active	[92]
	Brazil	Dried bark	Shell	Dextran-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[92]
	Brazil	Dried bark	Shell	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[92]
	Brazil	Dried bark	Isopropanol-H2O (1:1) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[92]
	Brazil	Dried bark	Shell	Number of leukocytes in exudate/IP	Rat	Active	[92]
Astronium urundeuva	Brazil	Stembark	EtoAc ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[93]
	Brazil	Dried bark	Tannin fraction	Dextran-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[93]
	Brazil	Dried bark	Tannin fraction	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Active	[93]
	Brazil	Dried bark	Tannin fraction	Cyclophosphamide-induced hemorrhagic cystitis/IP	Rat	Active	[93]
	Brazil	Stembark	EtoAc ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Active	[93]
Spondias mombin	Venezuela	Dried bark	EtOH (100%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[94]
Apocynaceae
Bonafousia longituba	Ecuador	Dried part not specified	EtOH (100%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[95]
	Ecuador	Dried entire plant	EtOH (100%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Weak activity	[95]
	Ecuador	Dried part not specified	CH2Cl2 ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[96]
	Ecuador	Dried part not specified	CH2Cl2 ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[96]
Ervatamia coronaria	Brazil	Dried stem	EtOH (95%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[97]
	Brazil	Dried stem	EtOH (95%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[97]
	Brazil	Dried stem	H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[97]
Himatanthus sucuuba	Brazil	Latex (unspec part)	Hexane ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[98]
Mandevilla velutina	Brazil	Dried rhizome	Aqueous-alcoholic ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[99]
	Brazil	Dried rhizome	Aqueous-alcoholic ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[99]
	Brazil	Dried rhizome	Aqueous-alcoholic ext	5-HT-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Inactive	[99]
	Brazil	Dried rhizome	Aqueous-alcoholic ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[99]
	Brazil	Dried rhizome	Aqueous-alcoholic ext	Snake venom-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Inactive	[99]
	Brazil	Dried rhizome	Aqueous-alcoholic ext	Platelet aggregating factor-acether induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Inactive	[99]
	Brazil	Dried entire plant	EtOH (95%) ext	Arachidonic-acid induced ear edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[100]
	Brazil	Frozen rhizome	EtOH H2O (50%) ext	Bradykinin-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[101]
	Brazil	Frozen rhizome	EtOH H2O (50%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/5-HT-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[101]
	Brazil	Frozen rhizome	EtOH H2O (50%) ext	Dextran-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[101]
	Brazil	Frozen rhizome	EtOH H2O (50%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[101]
	Brazil	Frozen rhizome	EtOH H2O (50%) ext	Cellulose sulfate induced rat paw edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[101]
	Brazil	Frozen rhizome	EtOH H2O (50%) ext	Paltelet aggretating factor-acether induced rat paw edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[101]
	Brazil	Frozen rhizome	EtOH H2O (50%) ext	Zymosan indued rat paw edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[101]
	Brazil	Frozen rhizome	EtOH H2O (50%) ext	Bothrops jararaca induced rat paw edema/Intragastric	Rat	Inactive	[101]
Peschiera australis var. australis	Brazil	Dried leaf	EtOH (100%) ext	Carrageenan-induced paw edema/IP	Rat	Active	[102]
	Brazil	Dried leaf	H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced paw edema/IP	Rat	Active	[102]
Peschiera vanheurckii	Peru	Dried stembark	EtOH (100%) ext	EPP-induced rat ear oedema/External	Rat	Active	[103]
Araliaceae
Hedera helix	Uruguay	Dried leaf	EtOH (95%) ext	**/Oral	Human adult	Active	[104]
Arecaceae
Orbignya phalerata	Brazil	Dried fruit	CHCl3 ext	Cotton pellet granuloma/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[105]
	Brazil	Dried fruit	CHCl3 ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[105]
	Brazil	Dried fruit	CHCl3 ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[105]
Aristolochiaceae
Aristolochia triangularis	Argentina	Dried root	MeOH ext	Croton oil-induced edema/External	Mouse	Active	[106]
	Argentina	Dried root	CH2Cl2 ext	Croton oil-induced edema/External	Mouse	Active	[106]
	Argentina	Dried root	H2O ext	Croton oil-induced edema/External	Mouse	Active	[106]
	Argentina	Dried root	H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Active	[106]
	Argentina	Dried root	CH2Cl2 ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Active	[106]
	Argentina	Dried root	MeOH ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Inactive	[106]
Asclepiadaceae
Marsdenia cundurango	Ecuador	Part not specified	CH2Cl2 ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[96]
	Ecuador	Dried entire plant	EtOH (100%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[95]
Asteraceae
Achyrocline satureioides	Brazil	Dried inflorescence	H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[107]
	Brazil	Dried inflorescence	EtOH (95%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[107]
	Brazil	Dried inflorescence	Hot H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[107]
	Brazil	Dried inflorescence	EtOH (95%) ext	Croton oil ear edema test/External	Mouse	Active	[107]
	Brazil	Dried inflorescence	H2O ext	Croton oil ear edema test/External	Mouse	Active	[107]
	Brazil	Dried inflorescence	Hot H2O ext	Croton oil ear edema test/External	Mouse	Active	[107]
Ageratum conyzoides	Brazil	Dried leaf	EtOH (70%) ext	Formalin-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[62]
	Brazil	Dried leaf	EtOH (70%) ext	Cotton pellet granuloma/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[62]
	Brazil	Dried leaf	EtOH (70%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/SC	Rat	Active	[62]
	Brazil	Dried leaf	Hydro-alcoholic ext	Formalin-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[65]
	Brazil	Dried leaf	Hydro-alcoholic ext	Cotton pellet granuloma/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[65]
	Brazil	Dried leaf	EtOH (70%) ext	Yeast-induced inflammation of the paw/IP	Rat	Active	[108]
Ambrosia tenuifolia	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	CH2Cl2 ext	Croton oil-induced edema/External	Mouse	Active	[106]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	MeOH ext	Croton oil-induced edema/External	Mouse	Active	[106]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	H2O ext	Croton oil-induced edema/External	Mouse	Active	[106]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	MeOH ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Inactive	[106]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Active	[106]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	CH2Cl2 ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Active	[106]
Artemisia copa	Argentina	Dried entire plant	Hot H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Inactive	[109]
	Argentina	Dried entire plant	CH2Cl2 ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Inactive	[109]
	Argentina	Dried entire plant	MeOH ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Inactive	[109]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	H2O ext	12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-induced ear inflammation/External	Mouse	Active	[71]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	CH2Cl2 ext	12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-induced ear inflammation/External	Mouse	Active	[71]
Baccharis articulata	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Inactive	[110]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Inactive	[110]
Baccharis crispa	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Inactive	[110]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[110]
Baccharis decussata	Colombia	Dried leaf	MeOH ext	**/Route not given	**	Active	[111]
Baccharis incarum	Argentina	Dried entire plant	CH2Cl2 ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[109]
	Argentina	Dried entire plant	MeOH ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Inactive	[109]
	Argentina	Dried entire plant	Hot H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Inactive	[109]
Baccharis medullosa	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	CHCl3 ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Inactive	[112]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	EtoAc ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Inactive	[112]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	CCl4	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Inactive	[112]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	Hexane ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Active	[112]
Baccharis rufescens	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	Hexane ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Inactive	[112]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	Acetone ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Active	[112]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	CHCl3 ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Active	[112]
Baccharis trimera	Uruguay	Dried aerial parts	H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Inactive	[110]
	Uruguay	Dried aerial parts	H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[110]
	Uruguay	Dried aerial parts	Butanol ext	Carrageenan-induced edema in rat paw/IP	Rat	Active	[113]
	Uruguay	Dried aerial parts	Butanol ext	Dextran-induced edema in rat paw/IP	Rat	Active	[113]
	Uruguay	Dried aerial parts	Butanol ext	Arachindonic acid-induced edema in pat paw/IP	Rat	Equivocal	[113]
	Uruguay	Dried aerial parts	Butanol ext	C16-PAF-induced edema/IP	Rat	Weak activity	[113]
	Uruguay	Dried aerial parts	Butanol ext	Zymosan-induced edema in rat paw/IP	Rat	Equivocal	[113]
Baccharis trinervis	Ecuador	Dried entire plant	EtOH (100%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Weak activity	[95]
Baccharis tucumanensis	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	H2O ext	Croton oil-induced edema/External	Mouse	Active	[106]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	CH2Cl2 ext	Croton oil-induced edema/External	Mouse	Active	[106]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	MeOH ext	Croton oil-induced edema/External	Mouse	Active	[106]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	CH2Cl2 ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Inactive	[106]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Active	[106]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	MeOH ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Active	[106]
Bidens pilosa	Brazil	Dried leaf	MeOH ext	Zymosan-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Active	[114]
Bidens subalternans	Argentina	Dried entire plant	MeOH ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Weak activity	[115]
	Argentina	Dried entire plant	CHcl3 ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Active	[115]
Centaurea chilensis	Chile	Dried aerial parts	MeOH ext	**/Intragastric	Guinea pig	Active	[116]
	Chile	Dried aerial parts	CHCl3 ext	**/Intragastric	Guinea pig	Active	[116]
Chromolaena christieana	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	MeOH ext	Croton oil-induced edema/External	Mouse	Active	[106]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	CH2Cl2 ext	Croton oil-induced edema/External	Mouse	Active	[106]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	H2O ext	Croton oil-induced edema/External	Mouse	Active	[106]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	CH2Cl2 ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Inactive	[106]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Inactive	[106]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	MeOH ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Inactive	[106]
Conyza bonariensis	Brazil	Aerial part essent oil	Essential oil	LPS-induced leukocyte recruitement/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[117]
Conyza floribunda	Ecuador	Dried entire plant	EtOH (100%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Weak activity	[95]
Conyza sophiifolia	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	Hexane ext	Paw edema test/Route not given	Rat	Active	[118]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	Acetone ext	Paw edema test/Route not given	Rat	Active	[118]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	CHCl3 ext	Paw edema test/Route not given	Rat	Active	[118]
Cynara scolymus	Brazil	Fresh leaf	Infusion	Dye diffusion assay/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[119]
Elephantopus scaber	Brazil	Fresh leaf	Infusion	Dye diffusion assay/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[119]
	Brazil	Dried entire plant	EtOH-H2O (50%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Inactive	[120]
	Brazil	Dried entire	Decoction	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Inactive	[120]
Eremanthus erythropappus	Brazil	Dried aerial parts	EtOH (95%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[121]
Eupatorium buniifolium	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	CH2Cl2 ext	12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-induced ear inflammation/External	Mouse	Active	[122]
	Equador	Dried entire plant	EtOH (100%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[95]
Eupatorium inulaefolium var. suaveolens	Argentina	Oven dried aerial parts	CH2Cl2 ext	Phorbol myristate acetate-induced ear	Mouse	Active	[123]
				Inflammation/External
	Argentina	Oven dried aerial parts	CH2Cl2 ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[123]
Gochnatia polymorpha	Brazil	Dried leaf	H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[124]
	Brazil	Dried leaf	EtOH (100%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[124]
	Brazil	Dried leaf	Butanol ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Inactive	[124]
	Brazil	Dried leaf	EtoAc ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[124]
	Brazil	Dried leaf	Dichloromethane ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Inactive	[124]
Laennecia sophiifolia	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	Hexane ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Active	[112]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	Acetone ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Active	[112]
Mikania glomerata	Brazil	Fresh leaf	Infusion	Dye diffusion assay/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[119]
	Brazil	Dried leaf	EtOH-H2O (1:1) ext	PAF-induced edema/Histamine-induced edema/SC	Rat	Inactive	[125]
	Brazil	Dried leaf	Dichloromethanol	Carrageenan-induced pleurisy/IP	Mouse	Active	[126]
	Brazil	Dried leaf	EtOH-H2O (1:1) ext	Serotonin-induced pleural edema/SC	Rat	Inactive	[125]
Mutisia kurtzii	Argentina	Dried entire plant	CH2Cl2 ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Inactive	[109]
	Argentina	Dried entire plant	MeOH ext	**/IP	Rat	Inactive	[109]
	Argentina	Dried entire plant	Hot H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[109]
Neurolaena lobata	Ecuador	Dried entire plant	EtOH (100%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[95]
Pluchea sagittalis	Argentina	Dried entire plant	Hot H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[123]
	Argentina	Dried entire plant	CH2Cl2 ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[123]
	Argentina	Oven dried aerial parts	CH2Cl2 ext	Phorbol myristate acetate-induced ear inflammation/External	Mouse	Active	[109]
	Argentina	Oven dried aerial parts	CH2Cl2 ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[109]
	Argentina	Dried entire plant	MeOH ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Inactive	[109]
Porophyllum ruderale	Brazil	Aerial part essent oil	Essential oil	LPS-induced leukocyte recruitement/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[117]
Proustia pyrifolia	Chile	Dried aerial parts	CH2Cl2 ext	Acetic acid-induced pedal edema/External	Mouse	Active	[59]
	Chile	Dried aerial parts	CH2Cl2 ext	12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-induced ear inflammation/External	Mouse	Active	[59]
	Chile	Dried aerial parts	MeOH ext	12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-induced ear inflammation/External	Mouse	Active	[59]
	Chile	Dried aerial parts	MeOH ext	Acetic acid-induced pedal edema/External	Mouse	Active	[59]
	Chile	Dried aerial parts	Hexane ext	Acetic acid-induced pedal edema/External	Mouse	Active	[59]
	Chile	Dried aerial parts	Hexane ext	12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-induced ear inflammation/External	Mouse	Active	[59]
Synedrella nodiflora	Venezuela	Dried leaf	EtOH (100%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[94]
	Venezuela	Dried leaf	Hexane ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[94]
Tagetes pusilla	Ecuador	Dried entire plant	EtOH (100%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[95]
Tanacetum vulgare	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	Dichloromethane ext	12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-induced ear inflammation/External	Mouse	Active	[127]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	EtOH (100%) ext	12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-induced ear inflammation/External	Mouse	Weak activity	[128]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	CHCl3 ext	12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-induced ear inflammation/External	Mouse	Active	[128]
Vanillosmopsis arborea	Brazil	Dried trunkwood	Essential oil	**/Gastric intubation	Mouse	Active	[129]
Bignoniaceae
Adenocalymma alliacea	Peru	Dried root + stem	EtOH (100%) ext	EPP-induced rat ear oedema/External	Rat	Weak activity	[103]
Tabebuia impetiginosa	Brazil	Dried bark	Type ext not stated	Formalin-induced pedal edema/Route not given	Rat	Active	[130]
Tecoma sambucifolia	Peru	Dried flowers	H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[131]
	Peru	Dried flowers	EtOH (95%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[131]
	Peru	Dried perianth	H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[131]
	Peru	Dried perianth	EtOH (95%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[131]
Tynnanthus myrianthus	Peru	Dried part not specified	EtOH (95%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[132]
Boraginaceae
Auxemma oncocalyx	Brazil	Dried heartwood	Quinone fraction	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[133]
	Brazil	Dried heartwood	Quinone fraction	Dextran-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[133]
	Brazil	Dried heartwood	Quinone fraction	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[133]
Cordia verbenacea	Brazil	Freeze-dried leaf	Lyophilized extract	Miconazole-induced edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[134]
	Brazil	Freeze-dried leaf	Lyophilized extract	Nystatin-induced edema/External	Rat	Active	[134]
	Brazil	Fresh leaf	EtOH (70%) ext	Cotton pellet granuloma/External	Rat	Active	[135]
	Brazil	Fresh leaf	EtOH (70%) ext	Cotton pellet granuloma/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[135]
	Brazil	Dried leaf	EtOH (70%) ext	Croton oil-induced edema/External	Mouse	Active	[136]
	Brazil	Dried leaf	EtOH (70%) ext	Nystatin-induced pedal edema/Gastric intubation	Rat	Active	[136]
	Brazil	Dried leaf	EtOH (70%) ext	Cold stress and carrageenin-induced edema combined/Gastric intubation	Rat	Active	[136]
	Brazil	Fresh leaf	EtOH (70%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Oral	Rat	Active	[137]
	Brazil	Fresh leaf	EtOH (70%) ext	Cotton pellet granuloma/Oral	Rat	Active	[137]
	Brazil	Freeze-dried leaf	Lyophilized extract	Nystatin-induced edema/External	Rat	Active	[134]
Symphytum officinale	Brazil	Dried leaf	Aqueous high speed supernatant	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Gastric intubation	Rat	Inactive	[138]
Bromeliaceae
Nidularium procerum	Brazil	Dried leaf	H2O ext	LPS-induced inflammatory/IP	Mouse	Active	[139]
Tillandsia streptocarpa	Brazil	Dried entire plant	MeOH ext	Croton oil-induced edema/External	Mouse	Active	[140]
Burseraceae
Bursera simaruba	Venezuela	Dried leaf	Hexane ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[94]
	Venezuela	Dried leaf	EtOH (100%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[94]
	Venezuela	Dried bark	EtOH (100%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[94]
	Venezuela	Dried leaf	Hexane ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[141]
Protium kleinii	Brazil	Dried bark	Ether ext	Arachidonic acid-induced edema/External	Mouse	Inactive	[142]
	Brazil	Dried bark	Ether ext	12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-induced ear inflammation/External	Mouse	Active	[142]
Celastraceae
Cheiloclinium cognatum	Brazil	Dried rootbark	MeCl2 ext	Croton oil-induced edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[143]
Maytenus aquifolium	Brazil	Dried leaf/plus piroxican	Hydro-alcoholic ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[144]
	Brazil	Dried leaf	Hydro-alcoholic ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[144]
Maytenus boaria	Chile	Dried aerial parts	MeOH ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Guinea pig	Active	[145]
Maytenus ilicifolia	Brazil	Dried leaf	Hexane-acetone	**/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[82]
	Brazil	Dried leaf	EtoAc ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[82]
	Brazil	Dried leaf	Hexane-acetone	Formalin-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[82]
	Brazil	Dried leaf	EtoAc ext	Formalin-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[82]
Maytenus laevis	Colombia	Bark	EtOH (95%) ext	Carrageenin-induced pedal edema/SC	Rat	Active	[146]
Maytenus rigida	Brazil	Dried bark	EtOH (95%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[147]
Chloranthaceae
Hedyosmum bonplandianum	Colombia	Dried leaf	Butanol ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[148]
Clusiaceae
Hypericum brasiliense	Brazil	Dried leaf	Type ext not stated	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Oral	Rat	Active	[149]
Convolvulaceae
Cuscuta chilensis	Chile	Dried entire plant	MeOH ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Guinea pig	Active	[150]
	Chile	Dried entire plant	Infusion	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Guinea pig	Active	[150]
Ipomoea fistulosa	Argentina	Oven dried aerial parts	MeOH ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[123]
	Argentina	Oven dried aerial parts	CH2Cl2 ext	Phorbol myristate acetate-induced ear inflammation/External	Mouse	Active	[123]
Crassulaceae
Bryophyllum calcinum	Brazil	Dried leaf	Lyophilized extract	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[151]
Kalanchoe brasiliensis	Brazil	Fresh leaf	Plant juice	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[152]
	Brazil	Fresh leaf	Juice	Zymosan-induced inflammation/IP	Mouse	Active	[153]
	Brazil	Fresh fruit juice (unripe)	Juice	**/IP	Mouse	Active	[154]
Cucurbitaceae
Cayaponia tayuya	Brazil	Dried root	MeOH ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Gastric intubation	Mouse	Inactive	[155]
	Brazil	Dried root	CHCl3 ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Gastric intubation	Mouse	Weak activity	[155]
	Brazil	Dried root	MeOH ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Weak activity	[155]
	Brazil	Dried root	CHCl3 ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Active	[155]
	Brazil	Dried root	Infusion	Dye diffusion assay/Intragastric	Mouse	Equivocal	[119]
Wilbrandia ebracteata	Brazil	Dried root	CH2Cl2 ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Weak activity	[156]
	Brazil	Dried root	CHCl3 soluble fraction	Carrageenan-induced pleurisy/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[156]
	Brazil	Dried root	CH2Cl2 ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[156]
	Brazil	Dried root	Chromatographic fraction	Carrageenan-induced pleurisy/IP	Mouse	Active	[156]
	Brazil	Dried root	CHCl3 soluble fraction	Carrageenan-induced pleurisy/IP	Mouse	Active	[156]
Wilbrandia species	Brazil	Dried rhizome	EtOH (70%) ext	Acetic acid-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[157]
	Brazil	Dried rhizome	EtOH (70%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[157]
	Brazil	Dried rhizome	EtOH (70%) ext	Carrageenan-induced granuloma/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[157]
Cyatheaceae
Trichipteris procera	Peru	Inner bark	EtOH (95%) ext	**/**	Rabbit	Active	[158]
Cyperaceae
Mariscus pedunculatus	Brazil	Venom	Essential oil	LPS-induced pleurisy model/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[159]
Dilleniaceae
Curatella americana	Brazil	Dried stembark	Hydro-alcoholic ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[160]
	Brazil	Dried stembark	Hydro-alcoholic ext	12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate(TPA)-induced ear inflammation/IP	Mouse	Active	[160]
	Brazil	Dried stembark	Hydro-alcoholic ext	Capsaicin induced mouse ear edema/IP	Mouse	Active	[160]
Equisetaceae
Equisetum arvense	Brazil	Stem	EtOH - H2O (1:1) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Active	[161]
Erythroxylaceae
Erythroxylum argentinum	Brazil	Dried leaf	EtOH (70%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[162]
	Brazil	Dried leaf	EtOH (70%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[162]
Euphorbiaceae
Alchornea castaneaefolia	Peru	Dried part not specified	EtOH (95%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	**	[132]
	Peru	Dried stembark	EtOH (100%) ext	Epp-induced rat ear edema/**	Rat	Active	[103]
Croton cajucara	Brazil	Bark essential oil	Essential oil	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[163]
	Brazil	Bark essential oil	Essential oil	Cotton pellet granuloma/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[163]
Croton celtidifolius	Brazil	Dried bark	H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[164]
	Brazil	Dried bark	EtoAc ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[164]
	Brazil	Dried bark	EtOH (80%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[164]
	Brazil	Dried bark	Butanol ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[164]
	Brazil	Dried bark	EtoAc ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Active	[164]
	Brazil	Dried bark	H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Active	[164]
	Brazil	Dried bark	Butanol ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Active	[164]
Croton lechleri	Peru	Fresh sap	Latex	**/Iinjection	Rat	Active	[165]
	Ecuador	Freeze-drild latex	**	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[166]
Croton malambo	Venezuela	Dried bark	H2O ext	Albumin-induced edema/IP	Mouse	Active	[167]
Croton menthodorus	Ecuador	Dried seed	CH2Cl2 ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[96]
	Ecuador	Dried entire plant	EtOH (100%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Weak activity	[95]
Croton pullei var. glabrior	Brazil	Dried leaf	MeOH ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[78]
Jatropha elliptica	Brazil	Fresh tuber	EtOH-H2O(50%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[168]
	Brazil	Fresh tuber	EtOH-H2O (50%) ext	Dextran-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Inactive	[168]
	Brazil	Fresh tuber	EtOH-H2O(50%) ext	Serotonin-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[168]
Phyllanthus amarus	Brazil	Dried aerial parts	Hexane ext	Cfa induced edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[169]
Phyllanthus carolinensis	Brazil	Dried entire plant	Hydro-alcoholic ext	Formalin-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Active	[170]
Phyllanthus corcovadensis	Brazil	Dried leaf + root + stem	EtOH-H2O(1:1) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/vs.dextran-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Inactive	[171]
Fabaceae
Apuleia leiocarpa	Brazil	Fresh bark	Infusion	Dye diffusion assay/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[119]
Bauhinia guianensis	Brazil	Dried stembark	CH2Cl2 ext	Dextran-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[172]
	Brazil	Dried stembark	CH2Cl2 ext	Histamine-induced edema/IP	Rat	Inactive	[172]
	Brazil	Dried stembark	EtoAc ext	Histamine-induced edema/IP	Rat	Active	[172]
	Brazil	Dried stembark	EtoAc ext	Dextran-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[172]
	Brazil	Dried stembark	MeOH ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[172]
	Brazil	Dried stembark	MeOH ext	Dextran-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[172]
	Brazil	Dried stembark	MeOH ext	Histamine-induced edema/IP	Rat	Active	[172]
Bauhinia tarapotensis	Ecuador	Dried leaf	H2O ext	Croton oil-induced edema/**	Mouse	Active	[76]
	Ecuador	Dried leaf	Dichloromethane ext	Croton oil-induced edema/**	Mouse	Active	[76]
	Ecuador	Dried leaf	MeOH ext	Croton oil-induced edema/**	Mouse	Active	[76]
	Ecuador	Dried leaf	Hexane ext	Croton oil-induced edema/**	Mouse	Active	[76]
	Ecuador	Dried leaf	CHCl3 ext	Croton oil-induced edema/**	Mouse	Active	[76]
Caesalpinia ferrea	Brazil	Dried fruit	H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[173]
Calliandra angustifolia	Peru	Dried bark	EtOH (100%) ext	Epp-induced rat ear edema/**	Rat	Inactive	[103]
Copaifera cearensis	Brazil	Dried balsam	Oleoresin	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[174]
Copaifera langsdorfii	Brazil	Dried oleoresin	Resin	Acetic acid-induced colitis/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[174]
Copaifera species	Brazil	Oleoresin	Oleoresin	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[174]
	Brazil	Oleoresin	Oleoresin	Cotton pellet granuloma/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[174]
	Brazil	Oleoresin	Oleoresin	Histamine-induced vascular peremability/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[174]
Erythrina velutina	Brazil	Dried leaf	Decoction	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Inactive	[175]
	Brazil	Dried leaf	Decoction	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Inactive	[175]
	Brazil	Dried leaf	Decoction	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Inactive	[175]
Erythrina crista-galli	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	Dichloromethane ext	12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-induced ear inflammation/**	Mouse	Active	[176]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	MeOH ext	12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-induced ear inflammation/**	Mouse	Active	[176]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	H2O ext	12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-induced ear inflammation/**	Mouse	Active	[176]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	MeOH ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[176]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[176]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	Dichloromethane ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[176]
Marsypianthes chamaedrys	Brazil	Fresh leaf	Infusion	Dye diffusion assay/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[119]
Psoralea glandulosa	Chile	Dried aerial parts	Infusion	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Guinea pig	Active	[150]
	Chile	Dried aerial parts	MeOH ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Guinea pig	Active	[150]
	Chile	Dried aerial parts	Pet ether ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Guinea pig	Active	[177]
	Chile	Dried aerial parts	Dichloromethane ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Guinea pig	Active	[177]
	Chile	Dried aerial parts	MeOH ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Guinea pig	Active	[177]
Pterocarpus ulei	Peru	Dried stembark	EtOH (100%) ext	EPP-induced rat ear oedema/**	Rat	Inactive	[103]
Pterodon emarginatus	Brazil	Dried fruit	Hexane ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[178]
	Brazil	Dried fruit	Hexane ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[178]
Stryphnodendron adstringens	Brazil	Dried stembark		Acetic acid induced vascular permeability/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[179]
	Brazil	Dried stembark	Acetone ext	Dextran-induced pedal edema/carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[179]
	Brazil	Dried stembark	Acetone ext	**/Intragastric	Rat	Weak activity	[179]
Torresea cearensis	Brazil	Dried stembark		Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[180]
Flacourtiaceae
Casearia sylvestris	Brazil	Fresh bark + leaf	Infusion	Dye diffusion assay/Intragastric	Mouse	Weak activity	[119]
Gentianaceae
Gentianella achalensis	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	Chromatographic fraction	12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate(TPA)-induced ear inflammation/**	Mouse	Active	[181]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	Pet ether ext	12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate(TPA)-induced ear inflammation/**	Mouse	Inactive	[181]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	MeOH ext	12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate(TPA)-induced ear inflammation/**	Mouse	Inactive	[181]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	Dichloromethane ext	12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate(TPA)-induced ear inflammation/**	Mouse	Active	[181]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	Dichloromethane ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Inactive	[181]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	Pet ether ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Inactive	[181]
	Argentina	Dried aerial parts	MeOH ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Inactive	[181]
Lamiaceae
Hyptis pectinata	Brazil	Dried leaf	H2O ext	Arachidonic acid-induced edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[182]
	Brazil	Dried leaf	H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[182]
Lavandula latifolia	Paraguay	Aerial parts	Chromatographic fraction	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/**	Rat	Active	[183]
	Paraguay	Aerial parts	EtOH (70%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/**	Rat	Active	[183]
Raphiodon echinus	Brazil	Dried aerial parts	H2O ext	Acetic acid-induced dye diffusion/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[129]
Liliaceae
Polygonatum punctatum	Argentina	Oven dried aerial parts	CH2Cl2 ext	Phorbol myristate acetate-induced ear inflammation/**	Mouse	Active	[123]
	Argentina	Oven dried aerial parts	H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Weak activity	[123]
Linaceae
Vantanea peruviana	Peru	Dried stembark	EtOH (100%) ext	EPP-induced rat ear oedema/**	Rat	Strong activity	[103]
Loasaceae
Mentzelia chilensis	Peru	Dried stem	EtoAc ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[184]
	Peru	Dried stem	H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[184]
Lythraceae
Adenaria floribunda	Peru	Dried stem	EtOH (100%) ext	EPP-induced rat ear oedema/**	Rat	Active	[103]
Magnoliaceae
Talauma ovata	Brazil	Dried leaf	EtOH (95%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Inactive	[185]
Malvaceae
Sida cordifolia	Brazil	Dried leaf	H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[186]
Urena lobata	Ecuador	Dried entire plant	EtOH (100%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Weak activity	[95]
Meliaceae
Guarea guidonia	Brazil	Seed	EtOH (90%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Gastric Intubation	Rat	Active	[187]
	Brazil	Seed	EtOH (90%) ext	Cotton pellet granuloma/Gastric Intubation	Rat	Active	[187]
Trichilia glabra	Argentina	Dried leaf		Zymosan-induced immediate inflammation moded/IP	Mouse	Active	[188]
Menispermaceae
Abuta grandifolia	Peru	Dried part not specified	EtOH (95%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	**	[132]
Cissampelos sympodialis	Brazil	Dried leaf	EtOH (80%) ext	Capsaicin induced edema/IP	Mouse	Active	[189]
	Brazil	Dried leaf	EtOH (80%) ext	12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate(TPA)-induced ear inflammation/IP	Mouse	Active	[189]
	Brazil	Dried leaf	EtOH (80%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[189]
Monimiaceae
Peumus boldus	Chile	Dried leaf	EtOH (70%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[190]
Moraceae
Dorstenia brasiliensis	Brazil	Fresh root	Infusion	Dye diffusion assay/Intragastric	Mouse	Weak activity	[119]
Myristicaceae
Virola pavonis	Peru	Dried vine	EtOH (95%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[132]
Virola peruviana	Peru	Dried part not specified	EtOH (95%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[132]
Eugenia uniflora	Brazil	Fresh leaf	Infusion	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[191]
	Brazil	Fresh leaf	EtOH (100%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[191]
	Brazil	Fresh leaf	Decoction	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[191]
	Brazil	Dried leaf	Infusion	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Inactive	[191]
	Brazil	Dried leaf	EtOH (100%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Inactive	[191]
Psidium guineense	Brazil	Fresh leaf essential oil	Essential oil	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[192]
Olacaceae
Heisteria acuminata	Ecuador	Dried part not specified	CH2Cl2 ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Inactive	[96]
	Ecuador	Dried entire plant	EtOH (100%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[95]
Orchidaceae
Catasetum barbatum	Paraguay	Dried aerial parts	EtOH (70%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/**	Rat	Active	[193]
Phytolaccaceae
Petiveria alliacea	Brazil	Dried root	EtOH (70%) ext	Croton oil-induced irritation/**	Rat	Active	[194]
	Brazil	Dried root	EtOH (70%) ext	Cotton pellet granuloma/**	Rat	Active	[194]
	Brazil	Dried root	Hydro-alcoholic ext	Nystatin induced edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[195]
	Brazil	Dried root	Hydro-alcoholic ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[195]
	Brazil	Dried root	Lyophilized extract	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[196]
	Brazil	Dried root	Hydro-alcoholic ext	Cotton pellet granuloma/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[195]
	Peru	Dried entire plant	EtOH (100%) ext	EPP-induced rat ear oedema/**	Rat	Inactive	[103]
Phytolacca bogotensis	Ecuador	Dried entire plant	EtOH (100%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Inactive	[95]
	Ecuador	Dried entire plant	CH2Cl2 ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Inactive	[96]
Phytolacca rivinoides	Ecuador	Dried entire plant	EtOH (100%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Weak activity	[95]
	Ecuador	Dried entire plant	CH2Cl2 ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Inactive	[96]
Piperaceae
Peperomia pellucida	Brazil	Dried aerial	H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[197]
Piper lenticellosum	Ecuador	Dried entire plant	EtOH (100%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[95]
	Ecuador	Dried fruit	CH2Cl2 ext		Mouse	Active	[96]
Piper marginatum	Brazil	Dried leaf	H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[198]
Plantaginaceae
Plantago australis	Brazil	Dried root	Hydro-alcoholic ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[199]
	Brazil	Dried leaf	Hydro-alcoholic ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[199]
	Brazil	Dried fruit	Hydro-alcoholic ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[199]
Plantago major	Brazil	Dried leaf	H2O ext	Croton oil-induced edema/**	Mouse	Inactive	[200]
	Brazil	Dried leaf	H2O ext	Croton oil granuloma/** pouch/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[200]
	Brazil	Dried leaf	H2O ext	Dextran-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Inactive	[200]
	Brazil	Dried leaf	H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pleurisy/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[200]
	Brazil	Dried leaf	H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Weak activity	[200]
Polygonaceae
Polygonum punctatum	Brazil	Dried entire plant	Decoction	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Gastric intubation	Rat	Active	[201]
	Brazil	Dried entire plant	EtOH-H2O (1:1) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Gastric intubation	Rat	Active	[201]
	Brazil	Dried entire plant	EtOH-H2O (1:1) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/**	Rat	Inactive	[201]
	Brazil	Dried entire plant	Decoction	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/**	Rat	Inactive	[201]
Polypodiaceae
Campyloneurum phyllitidis	Paraguay	Dried leaf	H2O ext	Croton oil-induced edema/**	Mouse	Active	[106]
	Paraguay	Dried leaf	CH2Cl2 ext	Croton oil-induced edema/**	Mouse	Active	[106]
	Paraguay	Dried leaf	MeOH ext	Croton oil-induced edema/**	Mouse	Active	[106]
	Paraguay	Dried leaf	H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Active	[106]
	Paraguay	Dried leaf	MeOH ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Active	[106]
	Paraguay	Dried leaf	CH2Cl2 ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Mouse	Active	[106]
Proteaceae
Lomatia hirsuta	Chile	Dried leaf	Infusion	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Guinea pig	Active	[202]
Rhamnaceae
Trevoa trinervis	Chile	Dried aerial parts	MeOH ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Guinea pig	Weak activity	[203]
	Chile	Dried aerial parts	Hexane ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Guinea pig	Weak activity	[203]
	Chile	Dried aerial parts	Dichloromethane ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Guinea pig	Weak activity	[203]
	Chile	Dried aerial parts	H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Guinea pig	Weak activity	[203]
	Chile	Dried aerial parts	MeOH ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Guinea pig	Active	[203]
Rosaceae
Acaena splendens	Chile	Dried bark + spines	CH2Cl2 ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Guinea pig	Weak activity	[204]
	Chile	Dried bark + spines	Infusion	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Guinea pig	Weak activity	[204]
	Chile	Dried bark + spines	MeOH ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Guinea pig	Weak activity	[204]
Kageneckia oblonga	Chile	Dried aerial parts	Hexane ext	Acetic acid-induced pedal edema/**	Mouse	Active	[205]
	Chile	Dried aerial parts	CHCl3-MeOH extract (2:1)	Acetic acid-induced pedal edema/**	Mouse	Active	[205]
	Chile	Dried aerial parts	MeOH ext	Acetic acid-induced pedal edema/**	Mouse	Active	[205]
	Chile	Dried aerial parts	CHCl3-MeOH extract (2:1)	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Guinea pig	Active	[205]
	Chile	Dried aerial parts	H2O soluble fraction	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Guinea pig	Active	[205]
	Chile	Dried aerial parts	MeOH ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Guinea pig	Active	[205]
	Chile	Dried aerial parts	Hexane ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Guinea pig	Active	[205]
Rubiaceae
Chiococca brachiata	Brazil	Fresh root	Infusion	Dye diffusion assay/Intragastric	Mouse	active	[119]
Coutarea hexandra	Brazil	Dried stembark	EtOH (95%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[206]
Uncaria guianensis	Peru	Dried bark	Lyophilized extract	**/**	Human adult	Active	[207]
Uncaria tomentosa	Peru	Freeze-dried bark	H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[208]
	Peru	Freeze-dried bark	Hydro-alcoholic ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[208]
	Peru	Dried bark	Lyophilized extract	**/IP	Mouse	Active	[209]
	Peru	Dried bark	Lyophilized extract	**/Oral	Human adult	Active	[209]
	Peru	Dried bark	H2O ext	Cell Culture	In vitro	Active	[210]
	Peru	Dried bark	H2O ext	5-ht-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[211]
	Peru	Dried bark	Lyophilized extract	**/Oral	Human adult	Active	[207]
	Peru	Dried vine	Type ext not stated	**/Route not given	Human adult	Active	[212]
	Peru	Dried bark	Pet ether ext	5-ht-Induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[213]
	Peru	Dried bark	H2O ext	Chronic intestinal inflammation induced by indomethacin/**	Rat	Active	[210]
	Peru	Dried root	Rootbark	Convulsions strychnine-induced/carrageenan-induced pedal edemaI/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[214]
	Peru	Dried bark	EtoAc ext	5-ht-Induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[211]
	Peru	Part not specified	Type ext not stated	**/**	Human adult	Equivocal	[215]
Rutaceae
Zanthoxylum chiloperone	Brazil	dried leaf	Pet ether ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric		Active	[216]
Sapindaceae
Dodonaea viscosa	Brazil	Dried leaf	EtOH (70%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[217]
Sapotaceae
Bumelia sartorum	Brazil	Dried rootbark	EtOH (95%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Gastric Intubation	Rat	Active	[218]
Scoparia dulcis	Brazil	Dried entire plant	EtOH (95%) ext	Histamine-induced edema/carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[219]
	Brazil	Dried entire plant	H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Inactive	[219]
	Brazil	Dried entire plant	EtOH (95%) ext	Dextran-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[219]
	Brazil	Dried entire plant	EtOH (95%) ext	Cotton pellet granuloma/Intragastric	Rat	Inactive	[219]
Simaroubaceae
Simaba cedron	South America	Seed	Ether ext	**/SC	Rat	Inactive	[220]
	South America	Seed	Pet ether ext	**/SC	Rat	Inactive	[220]
	South America	Seed	EtOH (95%) ext	Cotton pellet granuloma/SC	Rat	Weak activity	[220]
	South America	Seed	H2O ext	Dextran-induced pedal edema/SC	Rat	Weak activity	[220]
Solanaceae
Brunfelsia bonodora	Peru	Dried part not specified	EtOH (95%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[132]
Brunfelsia uniflora	Brazil	Root	MeOH ext	Carrageenin-induced pedal edema/Oral	Rat	Active	[221]
	Brazil	Root	CHCl3 ext	Data incomplete/Oral	Rat	Active	[222]
	Brazil	Fresh leaf	Infusion	Dye diffusion assay/Intragastric	Mouse	Inactive	[119]
Solanum ligustrinum	Chile	Dried aerial parts	Infusion	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Guinea pig	Weak activity	[223]
	Chile	Dried aerial parts	Decoction	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Guinea pig	Weak activity	[223]
	Chile	Dried aerial parts	MeOH ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Guinea pig	Weak activity	[223]
	Chile	Dried aerial parts	Dichloromethane ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Guinea pig	Weak activity	[223]
	Chile	Dried aerial parts	H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Guinea pig	Weak activity	[223]
	Chile	Dried aerial parts	Pet ether ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Guinea pig	Weak activity	[223]
	Chile	Dried aerial parts	MeOH ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Guinea pig	Weak activity	[223]
Solanum lycocarpum	Brazil	Dried fruit	EtOH (95%) ext	Croton oil-induced edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[224]
	Brazil	Dried fruit	Alkaloid fract	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/SC	Mouse	Active	[224]
	Brazil	Dried fruit	Alkaloid fract	Croton oil-induced edema/SC	Mouse	Active	[224]
Turneraceae
Turnera ulmifolia	Brazil	Dried entire plant	Hydro-alcoholic ext	Cotton pellet granuloma/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[225]
	Brazil	Dried entire plant	EtoAc ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Inactive	[225]
Verbenaceae
Bouchea fluminensis	Brazil	Dried leaf	H2O ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Route not given	Rat	Active	[87]
	Brazil	dried aerial parts	EtOH (95%) ext	5-ht-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[226]
	Brazil	dried aerial parts	EtOH (95%) ext	Histamine-induced edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[226]
	Brazil	dried aerial parts	EtOH (95%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Active	[226]
Stachytarpheta cayennensis	Brazil	Dried leaf	EtOH (70%) ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Weak activity	[227]
	Brazil	Dried leaf	Infusion	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[227]
	Brazil	Dried entire plant	H2O ext	Dextran-induced pedal edema/carrageenan-induced pedal edema/histamine-induced edema/Intragastric	Mouse	Inactive	[227]
	Brazil	Dried leaf	Butanol ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Salvelinus alpinus	Weak activity	[227]
	Brazil	Dried leaf	Butanol ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[228]
Winteraceae
Drimys winter	Brazil	Dried bark	Hydro-alcoholic ext	PgE2 induced paw oedma/Intragastric	Rat	Equivocal	[229]
	Brazil	Dried bark	Hydro-alcoholic ext	Histamine-induced edema/Intragastric	Rat	Inactive	[229]
	Brazil	Dried bark	Hydro-alcoholic ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[229]
	Brazil	Dried bark	Hydro-alcoholic ext	Dextran-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[229]
	Brazil	Dried bark	Hydro-alcoholic ext	Bradykinin-induced pedal edema/Intragastric	Rat	Weak activity	[229]
	Brazil	Dried bark	Hydro-alcoholic ext	Paw oedema/Intragastric	Rat	Weak activity	[229]
	Brazil	Dried bark	Hydro-alcoholic ext	Paf-acether induced paw oedema/Intragastric	Rat	Weak activity	[229]
	Brazil	Dried bark	Hydro-alcoholic ext	Ovalbumine induced paw oedema/Intragastric	Rat	Weak activity	[229]
Zingiberaceae							[229]
Zingiber officinale	Brazil	Fresh rhizome	Hydro-alcoholic ext	Carrageenan-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[230]
	Brazil	Fresh rhizome	Hydro-alcoholic ext	5-ht-induced pedal edema/IP	Rat	Active	[230]
	Brazil	Fresh rhizome	Hydro-alcoholic ext	48180 compound-induced edema/**	Rat	Active	[230]
	Brazil	Fresh rhizome	Hydro-alcoholic ext	48180 and 5-ht induced skin edema/IP	Rat	Active	[230]
Zygophyllaceae
Larrea divaricata	Argentina	Dried leaf	MeOH ext	Cotton pellet granuloma/Intragastric	Rat	Active	[231]
	Argentina	Dried leaf	H2O ext	Peritoneal macrophages/IP	Mouse	Active	[232]

Incompleted dates; IP = intraperitoneal; SC = subcutaneous; EtOH = ethanolic extract ; H2O ext = aqueous extract; MeOH ext = methanol extract; EtoAc ext = ethyl acetate extract; CH2Cl2 ext = dichloromethane extract; CHCl3 ext = chloroformic extract ; CCl4 = chloroform; MeCl2 ext = dichloromethane extract; EtOH-H2O = crude aqueous/alcoholic extract; CHCl3-MeOH extract = dichloromethane and methanol extract.

The effectiveness of the plant extracts was dependent on the type of extract used, the model of inflammation induction and the organism tested. Thus, it was possible to classify the extracts as strongly active, active, weakly active, inactive and equivocal.

Different species of Proustia genus have been frequently used as antiinflammatory and analgesic to treat gout and rheumatic illnesses, however, there is little information about their efficacy and acute toxicity [55]. This genus accumulates sesquiterpene α-isocedrene derivatives that are typical for the subtribus Nassauviinae of the family Asteraceae [56], and a guaianolide β-d-glucopyranoside has been previously isolated from Proustia ilicifolia [57].

According to Delporte et al. (2005) [55] in the assays carried out per os crude methanol extract (GME), hexane extract (HE) and methanol extract (ME) exhibited the strongest analgesic activities similar to the reference drug (SN). In relation to the results obtained in per os anti-inflammatory studies, ME showed the strongest effect, and was similar to the reference drug (SN); HE did not present significant antiinflammatory activity. The antiinflammatory activity have been attributed the presence of compounds with a similar mechanism for both activities, as for example inhibition of the synthesis of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). By the activation of the cyclo-oxygenase enzyme, the level of PGE2 increases markedly, and its production provokes inflammation and pain [58]. Therefore, we assume that some active metabolites of these extracts could inhibit cyclooxygenase activity.

For arachidonic acid (AA) and phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (TPA) induced oedema, GME showed significant effect only against AA assay and on the contrary, HE and ME presented important activities only against TPA and dichloromethane extract (DCE) was active in both AA and TPA models. The action’s mechanism of the GME can be explained by inhibition of cyclooxygenase enzymes while the HE and ME may act by inhibiting the synthesis of leukotrienes. Since the DCE in addition to inhibiting the synthesis of leukotrienes may act by blocking production of PGE2 [59].

GME did not show acute toxicity per os up to the maxim dose of 2 g/kg and the weight of the mice had a normal variation after the seven days of observation. Common side effects such as, mild diarrhea, loss of weight and depression were not recorded. It is important to carry out toxicological studies in other animal species in order to demonstrate its lack of toxicity [59].

Ageratum conyzoides (Asteraceae), known commonly as “mentrasto”, has been used in Brazillian folk medicine to treat various ailments (metrorrhagia, fevers, dermatitis, inflammation, rheumatism, diarrhea and diuretics). A large number of pharmacological activities (anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, analgesic) have been attributed to the essential oil of Ageratum conyzoides [60]. The flowers and leaves are used in the form of an infusion for their analgesic and antiinflammatory properties. Literature data indicate its efficacy in alleviating pain caused by human arthritis [61] or induced experimentally [62].

The hydroalcoholic extract (HAE) of the leaves from A. conyzoides was active in both the on subacute (cotton pellet-induced granuloma) and chronic (formaldehyde-induced arthritis) models of inflammation in rats. The weights of cotton pellets were significantly reduced in (38%) after treatment with crude extract of A. conyzoides (250 mg/kg, p. o.) and possibly this effect is related to inhibition of neutrophil migration. Exame macroscopic gastric mucosa did not reveal any tissue damage associated with treatment, which is a collateral effect of many antiinflammatory drugs, including aspirin and related compounds [63,64], this result would be explained by an inhibition of the biosynthesis of prostanoids by cyclooxygenase [65].

Literature review reports indicate the presence of pyrrolizidine alkaloids in A. conyzoides plants [66,67]. These are known to be hepatotoxic, and to cause lung cancer and variety of other ailments [68]. There was investigated possible hematological and biochemical alteration in animal blood samples following after sub-acute and chronic treatment with the HAE of the plant. To evaluate liver function, serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT) and serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase (SGPT) levels of plasma were measured. It was observed that during the sub-acute treatment, no significant alteration in serum levels of SGOT and SGPT, however during the chronic treatment with HAE (500 mg/kg body wt.) the value of SGPT (108.5726.6 U/l) showed a statistically significant difference (p < 0,05) to control group (155.6739.6 U/l), reduced significantly [65].

Artemisia copa Phil. (Compositae), commonly known as “copa-copa”, is a small and much branched bush with a height of 30–60 cm that grows in the northwest of Argentina and in the north of Chile. The plant is regularly sold in local markets and herb health stores and the infusion of the aerial parts are used in popular medicine as antitussive, digestive, for lowering fever, for pulmonary diseases, and hypertension [69]. The leaves, macerated in alcohol, are also used locally to rub on rheumatic pains [70].

Anti-inflammatory activity of ethanol and dichloromethane extracts were analyzed in models of carrageenan-induced paw edema in rats and the ear edema induced by 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13 acetate (TPA) and arachidonic acid (AA) in mice. Antiinflammatory activity was observed in both extracts that showed antiinflammatory activity in the TPA (88 and 54%), and the ethanolic extract showed a 37% inhibition in AA test. The results suggested that A. copa was able to prevent the production of proinflammatory mediators specially those related with cyclooxygenase (CO) and Lipoxygenase (LO) pathway. A. copa has no analgesic effect on the central nervous system that would contribute to its peripheral analgesic effect [71].

Bauhinia tarapotensis Benth. (Leguminosae) is a small tree growing in Ecuador (South America), where it is commonly known as “pata de vaca”. The plant leaves are traditionally used for their anti-inflammatory and decongestant properties [72], whereas the bark is employed as antidiarrhoeal remedy [73]. Previous study on the methanol extract of B. tarapotensis leaves revealed antioxidant and radical scavenger properties, due to the presence of different antioxidant principles, such as cyclohexenone, lignans, and phenylethanoids derivatives [74].

The topical anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated as inhibition of the croton oil-induced ear edema in mice [75]. Five extracts of the leaves significantly inhibited the croton oil-induced ear edema in mice, among which the chloroform extract was the most active. The main anti-inflammatory principles of B. tarapotensis leaves are triterpenic acids of ursane and oleanane series. The antiphlogistic activity of mixtures constituted of two ursane and oleanane isomers with different hydroxylation pattern, in the ratio 2:1, is comparable to that of indomethacin [76].

Croton pullei (Euphorbiaceae) is a liana that grows above other trees, distributed in tropical areas with vast distribution in the Amazon forest [77]. In the folk medicine, several plants of the Croton genus have been used with therapeutic purposes in pathologies that involve painful and inflammatory diseases which justify this work [78].

Anti-inflammatory activity was tested in two models that assess inflammatory processes such as edema and leukocyte migration. The crude methanol extract significantly reduced by 72% the ear edema by croton-oil induced, as also was a dose-dependent reduction of leukocyte migration to the peritoneum after induction with carrageenan. The mechanism of action has not yet elucidated [78].

Maytenus ilicifolia Mart. ex. Reiss (Celastraceae), popularly called “espinheira-santa” due to the appearance of its leaves and its therapeutic properties, is utilized in popular medicine in cases of inflammation and gastric ulcer [79-81].

This study evaluated the anti-inflammatory activity, antinociceptive and antiulcer of ethyl acetate and hexane extracts of Maytenus ilicifolia [82].

In the model of paw edema induced by carrageenan was observed that there was no significant difference in inflammatory response between indomethacin and the extracts evaluated. The result of hexane extract showed the anti-inflammatory potential of terpenes whereas for ethylacetate extract the anti-inflammatory response has been attributed to flavonoids, which act by reducing the formation of pro-inflammatory mediators as prostaglandins, leukotrienes, reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide [82]. According to Oliveira et al. (1991) [83], both acute and chronic administration of this species did not induce any apparent toxicity.

Material and Methods

In the present work, the anti-inflammatory activity of the plants was searched through the data bank of the University of Illinois in Chicago, the NAPRALERT (Acronym for Natural Products ALERT). The data were updated in September 2009, using anti-inflammatory plants as legend. The plant extracts studied in South America were selected for this work and the references found in the search were later consulted for details of the models or mechanisms.

Conclusion

Given the above, this review is of fundamental importance to intensify studies with medicinal plants for the discovery of new bioactive molecules in healing of many diseases, including inflammation, thus benefiting populations affected by ensuring a better quality of life.