The consequences of kesterite equilibria for efficient solar cells.

Copper-zinc-tin-chalcogenide kesterites, Cu(2)ZnSnS(4) and Cu(2)ZnSnSe(4) (CZTS(e)) are ideal candidates for the production of thin film solar cells on large scales due to the high natural abundance of all constituents, a tunable direct band gap ranging from 1.0 to 1.5 eV, a large absorption coefficient, and demonstrated power conversion efficiencies close to 10%. However, Sn losses through desorption of SnS(e) from CZTS(e) at elevated temperatures (above 400 °C) impede the thorough control of film composition and film homogeneity. No robust and feasible fabrication process is currently available. Here we show that understanding the formation reaction of the kesterite absorber is the key to control the growth process and to drastically improve the solar cell efficiency. Furthermore, we demonstrate that this knowledge can be used to simplify the four-dimensional parameter space (spanned by the four different elements) to an easy and robust two-dimensional process. Sufficiently high partial pressures of SnS(e) and S(e) (a) prevent the decomposition reaction of the CZTS(e) at elevated temperatures and (b) introduce any missing Sn into a Sn-deficient film. This finding enables us to simplify the precursor to a film containing only Cu and Zn, whereas Sn and S(e) are introduced from the gas phase by a self-regulating process.