Ethnomedical survey of plants used by the Orang Asli in Kampung Bawong, Perak, West Malaysia.

BACKGROUND: A qualitative ethnomedical survey was carried out among a local Orang Asli tribe to gather information on the use of medicinal plants in the region of Kampung Bawong, Perak of West Malaysia in order to evaluate the potential medicinal uses of local plants used in curing different diseases and illnesses.
METHODS: Sixteen informants ranging in age from 35 to 65 years were interviewed. A total of 62 species of plants used by Orang Asli are described in this study based on field surveys and direct face to face communication. These plants belonged to 36 families and are used to treat a wide range of discomforts and diseases.
RESULTS: The results of this study showed that majority of the Orang Asli, of Kampung Bawong are still dependent on local plants as their primary source of medication. As the first ethnomedical study in this area, publishing this work is expected to open up more studies to identify and assess the pharmacological and toxicological action of the plants from this region.
CONCLUSIONS: Preservation and recording of ethnobotanical and ethnomedical uses of traditional medicinal plants is an indispensable obligation for sustaining the medicinal and cultural resource of mankind. Extensive research on such traditional plants is of prime importance to scientifically validate their ethnomedical claims.

Background

The study of tribal knowledge of plants is an imperative facet of ethnomedical research. People healed themselves with traditional herbal medicines and ancient remedies from time immemorial [1,2]. Human beings have found remedies within their habitat, and have adopted different strategies depending upon the climatic, phyto-geographic and faunal characteristics, as well as upon the peculiar culture and socio-structural typologies [3]. Most of such information is passed on to the following generations by traditional healers through oral communication and discipleship practice [4]. Moreover, the World Health Organization (WHO) has reported that about 80% of the world population relies on traditional medicine to cure ailments [5,6]. Plants play a major role in the treatment of diseases and still remain the foremost alternative for a large majority of people [7-9]. This knowledge, if wisely utilized, could draw out promising herbal leads [10].

Perak, (Fig. 1) (5.02 N latitude and 101.08 E longitude), in Malaysia is one such area where traditional healing systems are still in practice among the local natives, especially the 'Orang Asli' tribes. Till date, no literature is available regarding the ethnomedical knowledge of this area, though there are ethnomedical reports on few other regions in Malaysia [11-13]. The 'Orang Asli', which means 'first people', are considered to be the original natives of peninsular Malaysia. There are about 150, 000 Orang Asli people of which 60% still live in the rain forests. There are 19 sub-groups among them, like Semai, Temiar, Lanoh and Jah Hut to name a few [14]. Many of the Orang Asli practitioners use local plant parts and plant juices to cure ailments and this practice is still in use [15]. Yet, little attention has been given to their traditional expertise to incorporate their knowledge in modern medicine. This study is an attempt to identify and document the use of traditional medicine among the local Orang Asli along the Kampung Bawong region in Perak.

Figure 1

Map of the Kampung Bawong region where the ethnomedical field survey was conducted.

Methods

Regular field trips were made to the selected tribal localities in different seasons of the year 2008, conducted in rural area located in Kampung Bawong. The authors worked with a specific tribe of Orang asli called the 'semang' who fall under the group 'negrito' (Fig. 2, 3). Sixteen informants were involved in the interviews. All informants were in the age group of 35 to 65 years. All informants were male. 3 of them were practicing herbalists, and the rest 13 were individuals who gained knowledge on medicinal uses of plants from their parents and relatives who were historically using the plants with promising results. Interviews were conducted in a local dialect of Malay language. Interviewing individual informant was of fundamental importance to assure the reliability of the gathered information. Individual interviews were conducted with 7 informants (3 herbalists and 4 individual informants) and one group discussion involving the remaining 9 informants was also conducted. The interviews were built on trust with a common aspiration to improve the health situation in the country and to conserve and increase the knowledge on medicinal plants. The information was collected in the local dialect of Malay language. Special concern was taken in collecting information to steer clear of any unoriginal information by sources such as books and magazines were rejected. Some informants were repeatedly merited during field trips to confirm the information provided by them previously. Interpretation and translation of the information received into technical or medicinal terms was cautiously avoided during the interviews so as to obtain a genuine picture of customs and uses. All the plants were identified by Dr. Encik Sani, Botanist, Department of Botany, University Kebangsan Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia. Voucher herbarium specimens were prepared and deposited in the herbarium of Department of Pharmacognosy, Masterskill University College of Health Sciences, Selangor, Malaysia.

Figure 2

An Orang asli crossing the river on their own wooden boat (perahuk) for fishing and hunting.

Figure 3

An Orang asli using blow pipe made up of sewor bamboo for hunting.

Results and Discussion

The present ethnomedical field survey indicated that there are 62 medicinal plant species belonging to a total of 36 families which are used in Kampung Bawong (Table 1). Most of these species grow in the wild naturally and their medicinal properties are crucial in traditional medicine of the Orang Asli. Majority of the species reported in this paper are widely known throughout peninsular Malaysia and are employed for a large number of medical conditions.

Table 1

Plants used by Orang Asli in Kampung Bawong, Perak of West Malaysia

Botanical Family	Botanical name	Local Malay Dialect	Part Used	Medicinal Uses
Acanthaceae	Barleria lupulina Lindl	Penawar Seribu Bisa	Leaves	Fresh leaves are used to remove warts
	Barleria prionitis Linn.	Hempedu landak	Leaves	Leaves are crushed and make into paste and applied over the inflamed area
	Dipteracanthus repens (L.) Hassk.	Deras malam	Leaves	Powder of dried leaves is mixed in warm water and drink to remove kidney stones
	Eranthemum borneense Hook f.	Sangsangkaruk	Leaves	Paste of leaves is applied to treat muscle cramps
	Strobilanthes crispus Blume.	Bayam karang	Leaves	Fresh leaves are masticated and swallowed as such to enhance the immune system
Annonaceae	Annona muricata Linn.	Durian Makkah	Leaves	Leaves are used to treat to kill all types of lice
			Fruits	Fruit juice is used to treat Stomach pain and hypertension
	Uvaria sorsogonensis C.Presl.	Segombong	Leaves	Decoction of the leaves is used to cure stomach ulcer
Araliaceae	Arthrophyllum diversifolium Blume.	Ondolus	Roots	Roots are boiled with water and drink to relieve body pain
Asteraceae	Eupatorium odoratum Linn.	Pokok kapalterbang	Leaves	Decoction of leaves is used as diuretic
Asclepiadaceae	Hoya coronaria Blume.	Takop	Leaves	Crushed leaves are applied to cure cuts and wounds
Bombacaceae	Bombax ceiba Linn.	Kapok	Leaves	Leaves are soaked into water and the decoction is taken for bath to treat body pain
Caesalpiniaceae	Caesalpinia crista Linn.	Gorek	Seeds	Seeds are crushed and mixed with sambal for appetite
Caprifoliaceae	Sambucus javanica Reinw. ex Blume	Kerak nasi	Leaves	Crushed the leaves with water and applied on inflamed parts to reduce pain and inflammation
Clusiaceae	Garcinia mangostana Linn.	Mangusta	Fruit	Fresh juice is used as nutrient drink
			Pericarp	Dried powder is used to heal the open wounds
Compositae	Artemisia argyi Levi. et Vant.	Ulam mak wan	Leaves	Fresh leaves are chewed in case of cough
	Gynura procumbens (Lour.) Merr.	Daun dewa	Leaves	Fresh leaves are used for to control blood glucose level
Connaraceae	Agelaea macrophylla (Zoll.) Leenh.	Akar pinang kutai	Leaves	The paste of leaves is used to treat acne
	Cnestis platantha Griff.	Binsangut	Leaves	Young leaves are warmed and applied to treat high fever
Euphorbiaceae	Croton caudatus Geisel	Tapasan komudi	Roots	Roots are boiled and the infusion is used as Nutrition.
	Euphorbia tirucalli Linn.	Mentulang	Latex	Latex is used to remove warts
	Jatropha curcas Linn.	Jarak Belanda	Leaves	Paste of young leaf is applied to treat cuts and wounds
			Roots	Roots are boiled and infusion is taken to treat diarrhea
	Phyllanthus niruri Linn.	Dukung Anak	Whole plant	Decoction of whole plant is used to treat jaundice
Fabaceae	Parkia speciosa Hassk.	Petai	Seeds	Fresh seeds are cooked and used to treat kidney disorders
Gnetaceae	Gnetum leptostachyum Blume.	Langod-langod	Whole plant	The plant was boiled in water and drink for relieve fever and flu
Lauraceae	Cassytha filiformis Linn.	Cemara Puteri	Whole Plant	Concoction used for the treatment of impotency
Leguminosae	Archidendron ellipticum Blume.	Bulinat	Leaves	Leaves are used to kill lice
	Bauhinia semibifida Roxb.	Daup-daup	Roots	Roots are boiled and the infusion is used to treat fatigue
	Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC) K. Heyne	Cugah	Barks	Powdered barks are applied on the affected area to treat psoriasis
	Pongammia pinnata Linn.	Kacang kayu laut	Leaves and Seeds	Fresh leaves and seeds are crushed and applied to repel insects
			Barks	Decoction of barks is used to kill intestinal worms
Loranthaceae	Dendrophoetoe constricta Dans.	Salidan	Leaves	Paste of leaves is applied to treat headache
Malvaceae	Abutilon indicum Linn.	Kembang Lohor	Leaves	Poultice in the treatment of fever
	Hibiscus rosa sinensis Linn.	Bunga Raya	Root barks	Root barks is soaked in water for overnight and taken in empty stomach to treat ulcer
	Hibiscus tiliaceus Linn.	Daun baru	Barks	Dried powder is used to cure all types of sexually transmitted diseases
Meliaceae	Aglaia odorata Lour.	Pacar cina	Flowers	An infusion is used to reduce fever
	Trichilia trijuga Roxb	Kayu kaling	Barks	Fresh barks are crushed and the juice is applied to cure cuts and wounds
Menispermaceae	Tinospora crispa Linn.	Pokok patawali	Stem	Decoction of the stem is used to treat diabetes
Myrsinaceae	Ardisia colorata Roxb.	Pacar inai	Leaves	Decoction of the leaves is used to cure viral infections such as herpes zoster, measles
	Ardisia crenata Sims.	Mata Ayam	Whole Plant	The crushed juice is used to treat earaches and fever
Myrtaceae	Syzygium cerina Hend.	Bagu	Roots	Roots are boiled with water and drink as an energizer
	Syzygium samarangenese Blume.	Red Jambu	Leaves	Leaves are used to treat skin infections
Oleaceae	Jasminum sambac (L.) Ait	Kampupot	Leaves	Young leaves are soaked in cold water and drink to treat gallstones
			Roots	Roots are boiled and the infusion is taken to treat diabetes mellitus
Oxalidaceae	Averrhoa bilimbi Linn.	Tulod-ulod	Leaves	A cocktail of the leaves along with the fruit is used to treat Syphilis
Orchidaceae	Bulbophyllum mutabile (Bl.) Lindl	Tatau	Leaves	Leaves are boiled and the decoction is used to treat fever
Poaeceae	Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv.	Lalang	Whole plant	Dried powdered plant is applied over the wounds to prevent microbial infections
Portulacaceae	Talinum triangulare (Jacq.) Willd.	Akar singsum	Flowers	Powder of dried flowers is mixed with tea and drink to treat asthma
Rubiaceae	Morinda citrifolia Linn.	Bingkudu	Fruits	Fruits juice is used to treat Jaundice
	Oldenlandia diffusa (Willd.) Roxb.	Siku-siku	Leaves	Juice of fresh leaves is used as Sedative
Ruscaceae	Sansevieria trifasciatai Prain.	Snake plant	Leaves	2 or 3 drops of fresh juice is instilled into ear to reduce pain and inflammation
Sapotaceae	Planchonella obovata (R. Br.) Pierre	Gombirat	Leaves	A paste of the leaves is applied on the forehead to relieve headache
Schizaeaceae	Lygodium circinnatum Burm.	Ribu-ribu	Leaves	Infusion of leaves is used to cure eye infection
Simaroubaceae	Eurycoma longifolia Jack.	Tongkat ali	Roots	Decoction of roots with tea is used as sexual stimulant
Solanaceae	Solanum nigrum Linn	Terong meranti	Fruits and Leaves	Fruits and leaves are chewed to treat upper respiratory tract infections
Umbeliferae	Centella asiatica Linn.	Pegaga	Leaves	Leaves are boiled and the infusion is used for mother who just give birth
Verbenaceae	Lantana camara Linn.	Bunga Tahi Ayam	Leaves	Leaves are boiled with water and spray to repel insects
	Stachytarpheta jamaicensis Linn. Vahl.	Bunga malam	Whole plant	The whole plant was crushed with water and applied on the injured ligament to relieve the pain and inflammation
Zingiberaceae	Curcuma petiolata Roxb.	Temu Puteri	Rhizomes	Juice is used to cure stomach ache
	Languas conchigera Burkill	Lengkuas Kecil	Rhizomes	Minced rhizomes are used for digestion
	Kaempferia galanga Linn.	Cekur	Rhizomes	Juice of the rhizomes is used for the treatment of stomach pains and coughs
	Zingiber ottensii Valeton	Kunyit Terus Hitam	Rhizomes	The juice of the rhizomes is used to cure all types of bacterial infections

The plants were often used by most of the informants more or less for the same purpose, and with only slight variations in recipes. The plants are usually collected from wild. All species were easily recognized by the informants with their respective local Malay dialect names. Some of the plants commonly used belong to the family Euphorbiaceae, Acanthaceae, Leguminosae, Zingiberaceae and Malvaceae. Most of these plants were used to relieve pain and to cure wound. Certain plants have specific use such as Strobilanthes crispus Blume., which is used to enhance the immune system and Eurycoma longifolia Jack., roots used as aphrodisiac. Results of this survey indicate that these plants were in use for a long time by the ethnic group.

Conclusions

This current ethnomedical field survey carried out among the Orang Asli living in the Kampung Bawong region of Perak, Malaysia reveals that many medicinal plants are still broadly used by the population in the area where the study was conducted for treating various diseases and ailments. It is believed that there are more than 100 species of traditional herbal medicines found in this region. Since many plant species are indicated as potential resource for treating various diseases, this should encourage further research in ethnomedicine. The informants' consensus in the treatment of the main reported diseases is quite high, giving more validity to the plants as a traditional remedy.

The current data will expand the genetic resources obtainable in the area of research and signify a potential source of natural products for treating various diseases. The preservation of these plant species is the gateway toward developing efficacious remedies for treating diseases. Due to lack of knowledge and interest among the younger generations, some of the traditional medical information was buried together with the previous generations. This implies that the local government and village authorities need to act fast to conserve the ethnomedical knowledge of Orang Asli in the village Kampung Bawong, and the medicinal plants require preservation in addition to the ethnobotanical and ethnomedical knowledge recording. The preservation of these herbs along with the traditional knowledge of how to use them is an indispensable obligation for sustaining traditional medicine as a medicinal and cultural resource. Thus a future extensive research of these plants in this locality is recommended to identify and assess their ethnomedical claim.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors' contributions

All the authors interviewed Orang asli people and identified all plant material described. JAJS developed the concept, designed and lead the project and also reviewed the manuscript. KA, GR, HAH, RS, MV, DKC and PP conducted the survey about the plants used by Orang Asli. KA, DKC and GR were also involved in the preparation of manuscript. HAH and PP were also involved in the verification of collected plants data for their vernacular name. SR, DKC and MV were also involved in reviewing the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.