Enhancing realism of wet surfaces in temporal bone surgical simulation.

We present techniques to improve visual realism in an interactive surgical simulation application: a mastoidectomy simulator that offers a training environment for medical residents as a complement to using a cadaver. As well as displaying the mastoid bone through volume rendering, the simulation allows users to experience haptic feedback and appropriate sound cues while controlling a virtual bone drill and suction/irrigation device. The techniques employed to improve realism consist of a fluid simulator and a shading model. The former allows for deformable boundaries based on volumetric bone data, while the latter gives a wet look to the rendered bone to emulate more closely the appearance of the bone in a surgical environment. The fluid rendering includes bleeding effects, meniscus rendering, and refraction. We incorporate a planar computational fluid dynamics simulation into our three-dimensional rendering to effect realistic blood diffusion. Maintaining real-time performance while drilling away bone in the simulation is critical for engagement with the system.