Acute and chronic effects of nano- and non-nano-scale TiO(2) and ZnO particles on mobility and reproduction of the freshwater invertebrate Daphnia magna.

Among the emerging literature addressing the biological effects of nanoparticles, very little information exists, particularly on aquatic organisms, that evaluates nanoparticles in comparison to non-nanocounterparts. Therefore, the potential effects of nano-scale and non-nano-scale TiO(2) and ZnO on the water flea, Daphnia magna, were examined in 48-h acute toxicity tests using three different test media, several pigment formulations--including coated nanoparticles--and a variety of preparation steps. In addition, a 21-d chronic Daphnia reproduction study was performed using coated TiO(2) nanoparticles. Analytical ultracentrifugation analyses provided evidence that the nanoparticles were present in a wide range of differently sized aggregates in the tested dispersions. While no pronounced effects on D. magna were observed for nano-scale and non-nano-scale TiO(2) pigments in 19 of 25 acute (48-h) toxicity tests (EC50>100 mg L(-1)), six acute tests with both nano- and non-nano-scale TiO(2) pigments showed slight effects (EC10, 0.5-91.2 mg L(-1)). For the nano-scale and non-nano-scale ZnO pigments, the acute 48-h EC50 values were close to the 1 mg L(-1) level, which is within the reported range of zinc toxicity to Daphnia. In general, the toxicity in the acute tests was independent of particle size (non-nano-scale or nano-scale), coating of particles, aggregation of particles, the type of medium or the applied pre-treatment of the test dispersions. The chronic Daphnia test with coated TiO(2) nanoparticles demonstrated that reproduction was a more sensitive endpoint than adult mortality. After 21d, the NOEC for adult mortality was 30 mg L(-1) and the NOEC for offspring production was 3 mg L(-1). The 21-d EC10 and EC50 values for reproductive effects were 5 and 26.6 mg L(-1), respectively. This study demonstrates the utility of evaluating nanoparticle effects relative to non-nano-scale counterparts and presents the first report of chronic exposure to TiO(2) nanoparticles in D. magna.