Pharmaceutical applications of confocal laser scanning microscopy: the physical characterisation of pharmaceutical systems.

The application of confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) to the physicochemical characterisation of pharmaceutical systems is not as widespread as its application within the field of cell biology. However, methods have been developed to exploit the imaging capabilities of CLSM to study a wide range of pharmaceutical systems, including phase-separated polymers, colloidal systems, microspheres, pellets, tablets, film coatings, hydrophilic matrices, and chromatographic stationary phases. Additionally, methods to measure diffusion in gels, bioadhesives, and for monitoring microenvironmental pH change within dosage forms have been utilised. CLSM has also been used in the study of the physical interaction of dosage forms with biological barriers such as the eye, skin and intestinal epithelia, and in particular, to determine the effectiveness of a plethora of pharmaceutical systems to deliver drugs through these barriers. In the future, there is continuing scope for wider exploitation of existing techniques, and continuing advancements in instrumentation.