Ultrasound and matter--physical interactions.

The basic physical characteristics of ultrasound waves are reviewed in terms of the typical displacements, velocities, accelerations and pressures generated in various fluid media as a function of frequency. The effects on wave propagation of interfaces are considered, and the way in which waves are reflected, transmitted and mode converted at interfaces introduced. Then the nonlinear propagation of high amplitude ultrasound is explained, and its consequences, including the generation of harmonic frequencies and enhanced attenuation, considered. The absorption of ultrasonic waves and the resulting heat deposition in absorbing media are described together with factors determining the resulting temperature rises obtained. In the case of tissue these include conduction and perfusion. The characteristics of cavitation in fluid media are also briefly covered. Finally, secondary nonlinear physical effects are described. These include radiation forces on interfaces and streaming in fluids.