trans-activation of PPARalpha and induction of PPARalpha target genes by perfluorooctane-based chemicals.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are ligand-dependent transcription factors that activate target genes involved in lipid metabolism, energy homeostasis, and cell differentiation in response to diverse compounds, including environmental chemicals. The liver-expressed receptor PPARalpha mediates peroxisome proliferative responses associated with rodent hepatocarcinogenesis. Previous studies have established that certain perfluorooctanesulfonamide-based chemicals (PFOSAs) alter lipid metabolism, are hepatic peroxisome proliferators, and induce hepatocellular adenoma formation in rodents, suggesting that they activate PPARalpha. The present study investigates this question and characterizes the activation of mouse and human PPARalpha by PFOSAs. Perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS), an end-stage metabolite common to several PFOSAs, was found to activate both mouse and human PPARalpha in a COS-1 cell-based luciferase reporter trans-activation assay. Half-maximal activation (EC50) occurred at 13-15 microM PFOS, with no significant difference in the responsiveness of mouse and human PPARalpha. Mouse and human PPARalpha were activated by perfluorooctanesulfonamide (FOSA) over a similar concentration range; however, cellular toxicity precluded an accurate determination of EC50 values. Studies of 2-N-ethylperfluorooctanesulfonamido ethanol were less informative due to its insolubility. These findings were verified in an FAO rat hepatoma cell line that stably expresses PPARalpha, where the endogenous PPARalpha target genes peroxisomal bifunctional enzyme and peroxisomal 3-ketoacyl-CoA thiolase were activated up to approximately 10-20-fold by PFOS and FOSA. The interactions of PPARalpha with PFOS and FOSA, and the potential of these chemicals for activation of unique sets of downstream target genes, may help explain the diverse biological effects exhibited by PFOSAs and may aid in the evaluation of human and environmental risks associated with exposure to this important class of fluorochemicals.