Degradation of kinetically-stable o/w emulsions.

This article summarizes the studies on the degradation of the thermodynamically unstable o/w (nano)emulsion--a dispersion of one liquid in another, where each liquid is immiscible, or poorly miscible in the other. Emulsions are unstable exhibiting flocculation, coalescence, creaming and degradation. The physical degradation of emulsions is due to the spontaneous trend toward a minimal interfacial area between the dispersed phase and the dispersion medium. Minimizing the interfacial area is mainly achieved by two mechanisms: first coagulation possibly followed by coalescence and second by Ostwald ripening. Coalescence is often considered as the most important destabilization mechanism leading to coursing of dispersions and can be prevented by a careful choice of stabilizers. The molecular diffusion of solubilizate (Ostwald ripening), however, will continuously occur as soon as curved interfaces are present. Mass transfers in emulsion may be driven not only by differences in droplet curvatures, but also by differences in their compositions. This is observed when two or more chemically different oils are emulsified separately and the resulting emulsions are mixed. Compositional ripening involves the exchange of oil molecules between emulsion droplets with different compositions. The stability of the electrostatically- and sterically-stabilized dispersions can be controlled by the charge of the electrical double layer and the thickness of the droplet surface layer formed by non-ionic emulsifier. In spite of the similarities between electrostatically- and sterically-stabilized emulsions, there are large differences in the partitioning of molecules of ionic and non-ionic emulsifiers between the oil and water phases and the thickness of the interfacial layers at the droplet surface. The thin interfacial layer (the electrical double layer) at the surface of electrostatically stabilized droplets does not create any steric barrier for mass transfer. This may not be true for the thick interfacial layer formed by non-ionic emulsifier. The interactive sterically-stabilized oil droplets, however, can favor the transfer of materials within the intermediate agglomerates. The stability of electrosterically-stabilized emulsion is controlled by the ratio of the thickness of the non-ionic emulsifier adsorption layer (delta) to the thickness of the electrical double layer (kappa(-1)) around the oil droplets (delta/(kappa(-1))) = (deltakappa). The monomer droplet degradation can be somewhat depressed by transformation of coarse emulsions to nano-emulsion (miniemulsion) by intensive homogenization and by the addition of a surface active agent (coemulsifier) or/and a water-insoluble compound (hydrophobe). The addition of hydrophobe (hexadecane) to the dispersed phase significantly retards the rate of ripening. A long chain alcohol (coemulsifier) resulted in a marked improvement in stability, as well, which was attributed to a specific interaction between alcohol and emulsifier and to the alcohols tendency to concentrate at the o/w interface to form stronger interfacial film. The rate of ripening, according to the Lifshitz-Slyozov-Wagner (LSW) model, is directly proportional to the solubility of the dispersed phase in the dispersion medium. The increased polarity of the dispersed phase (oil) decreases the stability of the emulsion. The molar volume of solubilizate is a further parameter, which influences the stability of emulsion or the transfer of materials through the aqueous phase. The interparticle interaction is expected to favor the transfer of solubilizate located at the interfacial layer. The kinetics of solubilization of non-polar oils by ionic micelles is strongly related to the aqueous solubility of the oil phase (the diffusion approach), whilst their solubilization into non-ionic micelles can be contributed by interparticle collisions.