Review of lithium in the aquatic environment: distribution in the United States, toxicity and case example of groundwater contamination.

Lithium is found at low concentrations in the major rivers of the United States (about 0.002 mg l(-1)) and as a mineral or salt in pegmatites and brines. The United States produces many lithium materials and consumes the greatest amount of Li in the world for use in ceramics, glass, aluminum, pharmaceuticals, batteries, etc. From 1950 to 1970, Li was central to many nuclear-related US Department of Energy (DOE) activities. The historical and current use of Li has not prompted many studies of the toxicity of this element to aquatic organisms. Here, we review the distribution and use of Li in the US with emphasis on usage by DOE. We also summarize information on the toxicity of lithium to aquatic biota. A case-example is provided which demonstrates the potential for contamination of groundwater with Li, evaluates the toxicity of the Li-contaminated groundwater, and identifies a treatment alternative.