The basal ganglia: a neural network with more than motor function.

The basal ganglia is a group of subcortical nuclei involved in motor control, cognition, and emotion. Basal ganglia disorders are manifested by abnormal movement and a number of neuropsychiatric disorders. Basal ganglia nuclei are organized into sensorimotor, associative, and limbic territories based on their connectivity and function. The caudate nucleus, putamen, and subthalamic nucleus comprise the input nuclei of the basal ganglia. The internal segment of globus pallidus and substantia nigra reticulata are the output nuclei. The input and output nuclei are interconnected by direct and indirect pathways. The cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and thalamus communicate with each other via closed (segregated) parallel as well as open (split) loops. Recent anatomic, functional, and clinical data have necessitated modifications in the classical models of local connectivity between input and output nuclei of the basal ganglia as well as in the corticobasal ganglia-thalamus-cortical loops.