Genetic toxicity of naphthalene: a review.

Results of five previously unpublished studies of the genotoxicity of naphthalene are presented and extensively discussed in relation to the large database that exists in the published literature. According to the published literature, naphthalene has not induced gene mutations in bacterial assays or in a metabolically competent human cell line. However, naphthalene has caused cytotoxicity in some cell lines, and induced clastogenicity in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells, in a human lymphoblastoid cell line, and in preimplantation mouse embryos. Some naphthalene metabolites were cytotoxic, but only naphthoquinones produced chromosomal damage in vitro. No chromosomal damage was observed in vivo in bone marrow erythrocytes from treated mice; however, a positive response was reported in a Drosophila assay for wing somatic mutation and recombination. The five unpublished studies of naphthalene genotoxicity include three studies in vitro (two Ames bacterial assays and an in vitro unscheduled DNA synthesis assay) and two in vivo (mouse micronucleus and in vivo unscheduled DNA synthesis). Naphthalene was inactive in all five studies, in agreement with reports in the published literature. Chronic inhalation of naphthalene over 2 yr induced an increased incidence of benign alveolar/bronchial adenomas in female mice, and nasal epithelial tumors in both sexes of rats. Inflammation, tissue damage, and subsequent regenerative hyperplasia at target organ sites occurred in both species. Results of standard genetic toxicity assays suggest that naphthalene is not likely to be genotoxic in vivo. Since the in vitro results come primarily from assays utilizing liver-mediated activation systems, and the in vivo results come from rodent organs that are not targets for tumors, tests using naphthalene-sensitive rodent tissues would determine the applicability of current data in addressing the mechanisms of these species and site-specific cancers. The standard assays reported here may be useful in predicting potential health hazard in other species, or in humans, in whom there are few reported instances of naphthalene-induced cancer, especially as more data on species-specific differences in naphthalene metabolism become available. Despite present data limitations, a threshold mechanism for tumorigenesis can be proposed. The absence of naphthalene-induced gene mutation and the presence of cytotoxicity and some chromosomal events in vitro are consistent with a threshold-related mechanism of tumor induction, driven by cytotoxicity and cell regeneration, followed by genetic events, or by accumulation of naphthalene at specific target sites to allow in situ formation of a genotoxic metabolite to trigger or enhance spontaneous tumor development.