Human estrogen receptor-alpha: regulation by synthesis, modification and degradation.

This review aims to evaluate the impact that human estrogen receptor-alpha (ER-alpha) synthesis, modification and degradation has on estrogen-dependant physiological and pathological processes within the body. Estrogen signaling is transduced through estrogen receptors, which act as ligand-inducible transcription factors. The significance of different isoforms of ER-alpha that lack structural features of full-length ER-alpha are discussed. The influence of differential promoter usage on the amount and isoform of ER-alpha within individual cell types is also reviewed. Moreover, the potential role of phosphorylation, ubiquitination and acetylation in the function and dynamic turnover of ER-alpha is presented.