Programming other hormones that affect insulin.

The metabolic syndrome is associated with a marked increase in risk of type 2 diabetes and atherosclerotic vascular disease (AVD). The mechanism responsible for the metabolic syndrome is uncertain, but recent evidence suggests that a combination of low birth weight and adult obesity is associated with a markedly increased prevalence. Insulin resistance is the cardinal feature of the metabolic syndrome. Several hormones, have modes of action that either potentiate or reduce the biological actions of insulin and, therefore, attenuate or induce insulin resistance. Since insulin action may be modified, these hormones potentially contribute to the pathogenesis of the metabolic syndrome. The purpose of this review is to discuss programming of hormones that modulate insulin action. The review focuses on two major endocrine pathways: (i) glucocorticoid hormone action; and (ii) the growth hormone (GH)-insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1) axis, and discusses mechanisms linking abnormal activity of these pathways with reduced early growth, adult obesity and the metabolic syndrome.