Skill acquisition in music performance: relations between planning and temporal control.

We investigated the acquisition of music performance skills in novice and expert pianists. Temporal disruptions in novice performances coincided with constraints in planning capacities. Child and adult pianists ranging in age (9-26 years), training (3-15 years) and sight-reading ability learned to perform a novel musical piece in eleven practice trials. Computer-detected pitch and timing errors revealed: (1) gradual improvements in performance tempo and pitch accuracy with skill level and practice, generally fitting a power function; (2) a relative-timing/pitch accuracy trade-off and high incidence of simultaneous pitch/time errors; (3) improvements in relative timing (temporal continuity, underlying beat, metrical structure) with skill and practice; and (4) increased anticipatory behavior and a greater range of planning with skill and practice. A strong positive relationship between the mastery of temporal constraints and planning abilities within performance suggests that these two cognitive indicators are closely related and may arise from segmentation processes during performance. Examination of sequence timing may explicate planning abilities that underlie many complex skills.