Chronic residential crowding and children's well-being: an ecological perspective.

Chronic residential crowding is associated with difficulties in behavioral adjustment at school, poor academic achievement, heightened vulnerability to the induction of learned helplessness, elevated blood pressure, and impaired parent-child interpersonal relationships among a sample of working-class, 10-to 12-year-old children living in urban India. The significant main effects of residential crowding on blood pressure and learned helplessness are moderated by gender. Residential crowding is positively associated with blood pressure only among boys and with helplessness only among girls. All analyses statistically control for household income. We then demonstrate that perceived parent-child conflict functions as an underlying, intervening process that largely accounts for several correlates of household crowding among children.