Haemodynamics in children during rest and exercise: methods and normal values.

Measuring haemodynamic performance in children is either invasive, and thus unacceptable, or noninvasive when the measured variable is often remote from the true variable. Measuring only maximum performance variables relies too heavily on motivation, especially in disease groups. We describe a method for the measurement of haemodynamic performance using respiratory mass spectrometry during rest, exercise and recovery therefrom. One hundred and six healthy children (55 male, 51 female) aged 8-16.9 yrs underwent an identical exercise protocol. Following studies at rest, they initially bicycled at 25 W x m(-2), increasing every 3 min by 15 W x m(-2) until exhaustion, after which measurements were made during recovery. Effective pulmonary blood flow, stroke volume, oxygen consumption, arteriovenous oxygen difference and functional residual capacity (FRC) together with estimates of pulmonary capillary blood volume and transit time were assessed at every exercise stage using inert gas rebreathing techniques. Haemodynamic performance is highly dependent on surface area, age, gender and pubertal stage. Many parameters, for example transfer factor, demonstrate pubertal stage-dependent differences at identical workloads even after correction for size. Females have a lower capillary blood volume at rest compared to age and size-matched males, but it is equalized during exercise. FRC unexpectedly rose with exercise, and peak exercise was associated with a falling stroke volume in 91% (95% CI 84-96%) of children, a possible demonstration of Starling's law of the heart. Oxygen pulse (oxygen consumption/cardiac frequency) is a very poor marker for pulmonary blood flow. Normal values are provided for all haemodynamic parameters for rest and every exercise stage for all subgroups of children. This should allow accurate comparison of normal and disease groups in future.