Inhibition of the mutagenicity of 2-nitrofluorene, 3-nitrofluoranthene and 1-nitropyrene by flavonoids, coumarins, quinones and other phenolic compounds.

When 56 flavonoids, 32 coumarins, five naphthoquinones, 12 anthraquinones and five structurally-related compounds were tested for their antimutagenic potencies with respect to mutagenicities induced by 2-nitrofluorene (2-NF), 3-nitrofluoranthene (3-NFA) and 1-nitropyrene (1-NP) in Salmonella typhimurium TA98 distinct structure-activity relationships were detected. First, the tetracyclic nitroarenes 3-NFA and 1-NP were in general more effectively antagonized by potent antimutagenic flavonoids and coumarins than the tricyclic 2-NF, while there were only minor differences with quinones. Secondly, antimutagenicity of natural compounds of plant origin correlated with the aglyconic nature 10 of a total of 15 glycosides were inactive, four flavonoid glycosides exerted antimutagenicity but to a distinctly lower degree than the corresponding aglycones. Thirdly, within flavonoids, coumarins and anthraquinones positive correlations were found between antimutagenic potency and the polarity of a molecule with the existence of an optimum of activity within flavonols and anthraquinones. However, polarity seemed to be unimportant within the chalcone and naphthoquinone series. Among flavonoids, the parent compounds flavone and flavanone were inactive, but all flavones and many flavonoids with phenolic hydroxyl groups exerted antimutagenicity. Antimutagenic potency reached a maximum with the presence of four hydroxyl functions-luteolin, kaempferol-though the position of hydroxyls was also a determinant of antimutagenic potency. Methylation of phenolic hydroxyl groups, however, always reduced antimutagenicity. A carbonyl group at carbon 4 was essential for antimutagenicity: two catechins and anthocyanidins each were inactive. On the other hand, ring C of the flavane nucleus was not essential for antimutagenicity: chalcones and dihydrochalcones were potent antimutagens. Among coumarins, the parent compound showed antimutagenicity against 1-NP and 3-NFA, although dihydrocoumarin, methylcoumarins and compounds with bulky substituents were inactive. Otherwise, antimutagenic activity depended on the presence of polar hydroxyl, amino or carboxyl groups at carbons 3, 4 or 7 but was diminished by interactions of hydroxyl groups vicinal to carbon 7. Again, antimutagenic potencies were reduced by alkylation or acetylation. Among furanocoumarins xanthotoxin exerted strong and bergapten moderate antimutagenicity, while psoralen (except against 3-NFA), isopimpinellin and the furanochromanones visnagin and khellin were inactive. Among anthraquinones, the principles delineated here were valid again, resulting in potent antimutagenicity of most phenolic compounds and inactivity of anthraquinone itself. Among compounds structurally related to anthraquinones, anthrone, acridone and xanthone exerted antimutagenicity, anthrone being the most potent one, while thioxanthone and 9-fluorenone were inactive. All naphthoquinones were potent antimutagens irrespective of the presence of methyl or hydroxyl functions. Plumbagin, 2-methyl-5-hydroxynaphthoquinone, however, showed exceptional antimutagenicity.