Signalling mechanisms and oxidative stress in apoptosis.

A variety of stimuli can induce cells to undergo apoptotic death. One of the most reproducible inducers is mild oxidative stress, be it via exposure to hydrogen peroxide, redox-cycling quinones or thiol-alkylating agents. Oxidative modifications of proteins and lipids have also been observed in cells undergoing apoptosis in response to non-oxidative stimuli such as glucocorticoids or topoisomerase II inhibitors. This suggests that some unidentified oxidative changes occur during apoptosis in many, if not all, cases. However, recent experiments demonstrating apparently normal apoptosis even when cells are cultured at low oxygen tensions show that reactive oxygen species cannot be essential mediators of this type of cell death. Experiments revealing that apoptosis is typically accompanied by a depletion of intracellular reduced glutathione (GSH) are also discussed. As GSH depletion will lower a cell's capacity to buffer against endogenous oxidants, we propose that it contributes to the increased oxidative damage commonly observed to accompany apoptosis. In addition, it may set a time limit on continued mitochondrial function (and thus indirectly on total ATP levels and membrane integrity) in apoptotic cells, and thereby explain the often observed 'secondary necrosis' of cells undergoing apoptosis in vitro.