Genetics in democratic societies--the Nordic perspective.

This report, with its emphasis on consensus points in the deliberations of the First Bioethics Workshop under the auspices of the Nordic Genome Initiative (an activity under the Nordic Council through its Nordic Programme Committee for Biotechnology), presents a Nordic perspective on the international discussion of ethical and legal issues relating to genetic testing. The Nordic countries have important common denominators with respect to political structure, education, religion, languages, cultural traditions and attitudes towards human values. A comprehensive national health service exists in all Nordic countries and there are important common legal foundations with great similarities between countries. However, in areas related to biotechnology there are considerable legal differences, but these differences do not necessarily reflect differences in underlying principles. Important ethical principles relevant to genetic testing that are shared by the Nordic countries include the concept of social justice with great stress on equality of treatment, the right to autonomy, the right to full disclosure of test results, strict confidentiality with respect to test results, the requirement that participation in testing programs must always be voluntary and based on information, and a responsible balance between risks or inconveniences on one hand and benefits on the other.