The economic context of drug and non-drug reinforcers affects acquisition and maintenance of drug-reinforced behavior and withdrawal effects.

The focus of this review is to examine the effect of non-drug alternative reinforcers on drug-reinforced behavior. An increasing number of animal laboratory as well as human clinical studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of non-drug reinforcers in reducing steady-state levels of drug self-administration. One goal of this review was to determine what behavioral economic conditions are optimal for reducing drug-reinforced behavior. Variables such as price of the drug and non-drug reinforcer have been manipulated by changing fixed-ratio (FR) value of these commodities. Income has been changed by limiting the amount of access to the commodities or by changing session length. Substitution was evaluated by determining whether decreased demand for a drug (due to increased price) was related to increased demand for a non-drug reinforcer. A second goal of this review was to investigate transition states in the drug addiction process with respect to the role of alternative non-drug reinforcers. Animal models of acquisition and withdrawal were examined to identify behavioral economic conditions under which acquisition may be prevented or withdrawal effects (and potential for relapse) may be alleviated.