Shame and social phobia: a transcultural viewpoint.

Shame is given different meanings in various cultural contexts. In Japan, shame-prone and self-effacing behavior tends to be given positive functional value and is actively promoted by society. In the United States, society tends to prohibit such shame-prone behavior and the show of one's vulnerability, while encouraging the visible demonstration of one's power and capacity. The author shows that these different meanings given to shame reflect different values of secretiveness in these two societies. He concludes by suggesting an alternative view of shame that encourages flexibility rather than an exclusively positive or negative value of secretiveness.