Locomotion of the filiform sperm of littorina (Gastropoda, Prosobranchia).

The filiform sperm of Littorina sitkana swims effectively in sea water and more viscous fluids, overcoming the problems of a non-uniform flagellar beat with an unusual mechanism, which involves three main events: (1) the sperm rotates anti-clockwise (looking from tail to head); then (2) stops rotating and stiffens itself to form a screw-shape, with the tail being held perpendicular to the middle piece, and finally; (3) reverses its rotation and propels itself forward in a clockwise spiral. The average velocity of sperm is approximately 184 micrometer/s with a rotational frequency of 24 revs/s. The mechanism of propulsion may involve two kinetic centers at opposite ends of the sperm, which coordinate their movements to produce anti-clockwise rotation, stationary twisting, or clockwise rotation, in a manner reminiscent of spirochaetes. Littorina sperm also exhibit slower methods of propulsion including swimming backwards (tail first) at 18 micrometer/s, and "gliding" at about 30 micrometer/s. The adaptive significance of the rapid propulsion is not obvious, because Littorina copulate and fertilize internally and at each stage in the transfer there are external aids to sperm transport, such as ciliary action (oviduct) and muscular expulsion (bursa and seminal receptacle). The filiform shape, however, is well-adapted for long-term storage in the female body. These points are discussed.