Retinal mechanisms of visual adaptation and afterimages.

Recent results obtained from recordings of isolated photoreceptor activity and from correlations of this activity with time-dependent changes in the responses of other retinal cells in several vertebrates have made a thorough revision of former theories of visual adaptation necessary. The present paper reviews the current state of research and relates the new discoveries with psychophysical findings in an attempt to explain human light and dark adaptation from the novel starting point. The former conceptions of adaptation have to be replaced with a three-level process consisting of photochemical receptor neural and network adaptation. Several adaptive mechanisms can be discerned at each level. Depending on adaptation conditions, any level of the three can play a dominating role and can also produce afterimages that display the behaviour of the mechanisms working at each level. The total achievement of visual adaptation is an optimized end product of the actions of all the various mechanisms.