Mechanics, power output and efficiency of the swimming muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus).

The surface swimming of muskrats (Ondatra zibethicus Linnaeus) was studied by forcing individual animals to swim against a constant water current, of velocity ranging from 0.2 to 0.75 m s-1, in a recirculating water channel. Lateral and ventral views of the swimming muskrats were filmed simultaneously for analysis of thrust by the propulsive appendages. Drag measurements and flow visualization on dead muskrats demonstrated that these animals experience large resistive forces due to the formation of waves and a turbulent wake, because of the pressure and gravitational components which dominate the drag force. Biomechanical analysis demonstrated that thrust is mainly generated by alternating strokes of the hindfeet in the paddling mode. A general lengthening of the hindfeet and presence of lateral fringe hairs on each digit increase the surface area of the foot to produce thrust more effectively during the power phase of the stroke cycle. Increased energy loss from drag on the foot during the recovery phase is minimized by configural and temporal changes of the hindfoot. Employing the models developed by Blake (1979, 1980a,b) for paddle propulsion, it was found that as the arc through which the hindfeet were swept increased with increasing velocity the computed thrust power increased correspondingly. However, the frequency of the stroke cycle remained relatively constant across all velocities at a level of 2.5 Hz. Both mechanical and aerobic efficiencies rose to a maximum with increasing swimming velocity. The aerobic efficiency, which examined the transformation of metabolic power input to thrust power output reached a value of 0.046 at 0.75 m s-1. The mechanical efficiency expressing the relationship of the thrust power generated by the paddling hindfeet and laterally compressed tail (Fish, 1982a,b) to the total mechanical power developed by the propulsive appendages increased to a maximum of 0.33 at 0.75 m s-1. I conclude that the paddling mode of swimming in the muskrat is relatively inefficient when compared to swimming modes which maintain a nearly continuous thrust force over the entire propulsive cycle. However, the paddling mode permits the muskrat to generate propulsive forces effectively while swimming at the surface. The evolution of this mode for semi-aquatic mammals represents only a slight modification from a terrestrial type of locomotion.