Levels, distribution and chemical forms of trace elements in food plants.

The content of trace elements in plants can vary widely, depending upon the composition of the soil in which they grow, other environmental factors, and the species or cultivar of the plant. A high growth rate of the plant may cause internal 'dilution' of trace elements. Complex formation with soil organic colloids and compounds, cell wall material and ligands in and inside the cell membranes are of critical importance in uptake, though most evidence shows that it is the free metal ion in the external solution that is absorbed; the detailed mechanisms are still unknown. Other processes such as excretion of organic compounds, reductants and hydrogen ions from the root greatly alter availability of trace metals, and iron has to be reduced to the ferrous form before uptake. The mean composition of plant shoots is affected by age and season; element mobility in the xylem and phloem determines translocation, and hence concentrations in individual parts of the plant. The rate of retranslocation can be strongly affected by the abundance of the element. Symptoms of deficiency or excess are well documented, but are often not dependable. The essentiality of the trace metals depends upon their function as part of enzymes, and these are briefly reviewed, with stress on processes in plants. Only a small fraction of the total amount of an element is bound in the enzyme; of the remainder, some is present as the free metal ion (Mn) or as complexes of small molecular mass (Cu, Zn, Ni, Fe), the rest being bound to cell wall material. Certain species or genotypes have resistance against high levels of some elements in the soil. Several mechanisms may be involved, one being very strong binding to root cell walls. There are also large genetic differences in susceptibility to trace element deficiencies.