Substitution and primary dependence studies in animals.

The mixed agonist-antagonist analgesics buprenorphine, butorphanol, nalbuphine, pentazocine and picenadol were compared to the prototype mu and kappa agonists morphine and Mr 2033, respectively, in the following tests in rhesus monkeys: overt behavioral effects upon acute administration in drug-naive animals; discriminative stimulus properties in monkeys trained to respond to either etorphine or ethylketazocine; self-administration of the test agent relative to codeine; single dose suppression and precipitation in withdrawn and non-withdrawn morphine-dependent monkeys, respectively; and primary addiction studies in drug-naive animals. Whereas both buprenorphine and nalbuphine precipitate withdrawal in morphine-dependent monkeys, withdrawal following chronic administration of buprenorphine resulted in no observable signs of abstinence, while nalbuphine withdrawal was similar to that seen in morphine-dependent monkeys. Butorphanol, pentazocine and picenadol all produced mild dependence of the kappa-type; that is, natural withdrawal behavior similar to that seen following chronic Mr 2033 administration.