Culture's influence in Japanese and American maternal role perception and confidence.

Japanese recognition of the importance of the mother in ensuring survival of the culture group is very old. This antiquity is spelled out dramatically in the ancient Chinese-Japanese ideographs (in Japan called kanji), which remain in use today. The kanji reflect the cultural isolation of Japan during 300 years of insularity preceding the Meiji period, and reveal the deep historical link to even greater antiquity in continental Asia. The historical development of kanji explicitly associates the concept of woman with passiveness, the home, and domesticity (see "woman," "peaceful," "to marry," and the concept "wife" in Figure 1) and attributes to the mother survival of the infant (see "mother" and "milk" in Figure 1). The dependence of this new member of the culture group on its mother also is conveyed in the kanji depiction of the "child" with its arms open and unable to walk. In contrast, diverse European progenitors of the comparatively recent "American" perception of the maternal role contributed an array of maternal role expectations; though often conflicting, each set of expectations was well-suited to the exigencies of the particular immigrant group's circumstances. Given the contrasting historical circumstances, substantial difference between present Japanese and American perceptions of the maternal role, and in the degree of a woman's confidence in taking the maternal role for the first time, could be expected. These hypotheses were tested using questionnaire responses and drawings made by 102 Japanese women and 104 American Caucasian women in the last trimester of their first pregnancy. The findings are examined in relation to achievement dynamics in the context of culture.