| Literature DB >> 36238506 |
Abstract
The perivascular space (PVS) of the brain, also known as Virchow-Robin space, consists of cerebrospinal fluid and connective tissues bordered by astrocyte endfeet. The PVS, in a word, is the route over the arterioles, capillaries, and venules where the substances can move. Although the PVS was identified and described first in the literature approximately over 150 years ago, its importance has been highlighted recently after the function of the waste clearing system of the interstitial fluid and wastes was revealed. The PVS is known to be a microscopic structure detected using T2-weighted brain MRI as dot-like hyperintensity lesions when enlarged. Although until recently regarded as normal with no clinical consequence and ignored in many circumstances, several studies have argued the association of an enlarged PVS with neurodegenerative or other diseases. Many questions and unknown facts about this structure still exist; we can only assume that the normal PVS functions are crucial in keeping the brain healthy. In this review, we covered the history, anatomy, pathophysiology, and MRI findings of the PVS; finally, we briefly touched upon the recent trials to better visualize the PVS by providing a glimpse of the brain fluid dynamics and clinical importance of the PVS. CopyrightsEntities:
Year: 2022 PMID: 36238506 PMCID: PMC9514531 DOI: 10.3348/jksr.2022.0049
Source DB: PubMed Journal: Taehan Yongsang Uihakhoe Chi ISSN: 1738-2637
Fig. 1The glymphatic clearance pathway indicates that the CSF enters the brain through the para-arterial spaces, mixes with the ISF, and exits the brain along the paravenous spaces surrounding the venules and veins.
The IPAD explains that the CSF from the subarachnoid space penetrates the brain along the pial-glial basement membrane; then, it traverses the brain parenchyma at the arteriole level, mixes with the ISF and cellular debris, and depart the brain parenchyma along the SMC basement membrane of arterioles and arteries. CSF = cerebrospinal fluid, IPAD = intramural periarterial drainage pathway, ISF = interstitial fluid, SMC = smooth muscle cell
Fig. 2A 56-year-old female with the MR-visible perivascular space.
A, B. MRI shows MR-visible perivascular spaces of T2-weighted well-defined focal high signal intensities (arrows) in both centrum semiovale (A) and basal ganglia (B).
Fig. 3A 65-year-old male with an EPVS (arrows, A-C) in the left basal ganglia.
A linear T2 low signal intensity within the EPVS represents a probable vascular structure that traverses the EPVS.
EPVS = enlarged perivascular space
Previous Researches Investigating Association between Disease and PVS
| Study | Disease | Number of Subjects | Age (Mean ± SD, Year) | MRI | Assessment Location | EPVS Quantification | Association Test Result |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Huang et al. ( | Aging | NC; 103 | 59.5 ± 6.1 | 3T | BG, WM volume calculated | Deep-learning segmentation | Age associated with hypertension, and PVS dilation |
| Sim et al. ( | Aging | NC; 109 | 65.2 ± 5.94 | 3T | HP | Manual score | EPVS associated with aging, not memory function in non-dementic elderly population |
| Loos et al. ( | SVD | SP; 118, | 63 ± 12 | 1,5 or 3T | CSO | Semi-quantitative | Extensive EPVS in BG associated with progression of WM hyperintensities |
| Gertje et al. ( | AD | Cognitive normal 499 | 71.6 ± 5.5 | 3T | CSO | Manual score | EPVS in HP associated with AD diagnosis |
| MCI 240 | |||||||
| AD 39 | |||||||
| Ciampa et al. ( | AD | Cognitively unimpaired | 59.95 ± 6.67 | 3T | CSO | Manual score | Genetic predisposition for AD is associated with EPVS in CSO |
| AD 680 | |||||||
| Kim et al. ( | AD | Amyloid – 67 | 71.3 ± 10.6 | 3T | CSO | Manual score | MR imaging-visible PVS-CSO are a key imaging marker of amyloid pathology when assessed by amyloid PET scans in patients with ADCI |
| Amylod + 77 | 75.4 ± 7.6 | ||||||
| Si et al. ( | PD & iRBD | NC; 35 | 61.3 ± 7.0 | 3T | CSO | MRI-visible EPVS in both hemispheres were assessed and added together | iRBD and PD patients have different MRI-visible EPVS burdens |
| iRBD; 33 | 65.6 ± 8.9 | ||||||
| PD-nRBD; 43 | 59.2 ± 12.1 | ||||||
| PD-sRBD; 39 | 61.8 ± 8.3 | ||||||
| Charidimou et al. ( | CAA-ICH | 14 CAA-ICH | 66.9 (65.3–71.4) | 1.5T | CSO | Manual score | Severe CSO PVS on MRI may be a promising new neuroimaging marker for the in vivo diagnosis of CAA |
| 10 non-CAA ICH | 56.9 (48.8–66.5) | ||||||
| Tsai et al. ( | CAA-ICH | 29 CAA-ICH | 72.4±12.0 | 3T | CSO | Manual score | Severity of CSO-PVS may be an indicator of higher brain amyloid deposition in patients with CAA-ICH |
| 79 non-CAA-ICH cases | 61.3±11.2 | ||||||
| Choi et al. ( | Others | 51 non-proliferative DR | 68.7 ± 9.2 | 3T | CSO | Manual score | BG-PVS severity and retinal choroid thickness may represent novel imaging biomarkers reflecting the stage of DR and cognitive decline in diabetic patients |
| 30 proliferative DR | 64.9 ± 10.7 | ||||||
| Penton et al. ( | CKD | Stroke patients 894 | N/A | CSO | Mild (< 20) | CKD was more prevalent in stroke with severe EPVS in the CSO | |
| BG-mild 735 | 62 ± 15 | ||||||
| BG-severe 159 | 72 ± 12 | ||||||
| CS-mild 541 | 62 ± 15 | ||||||
| CS-severe 353 | 67 ± 13 | ||||||
| Duperron et al. ( | ICH | ongitudinal population-based cohort 1678 participants | 72.7 ± 4.1 | 1.5T | BG, WM, HP, BS | Global dPVS burden sum dPVS grades in BG, WM, and | High dPVS burden in BG and HP, but not in WM or brainstem, were associated with higher risk of any stroke and ICH |
| Chan et al. ( | HD | 25 HD | 50 (46–59) | 3T | BG | Automated segmentation algotirhm, | EPVS associated with disease severity and may impact the distribution and success of treatments |
| 23 NC | 48 (43–51) |
AD = Alzheimer’s disease, ADCI = AD-related cognitive impairment, BG = basal ganglia, BS = brain stem, CAA = cerebral amyloid angiopathy, CKD = chronic kidney disease, CSO = centrum semiovale, dPVS = dilated PVS, DR = diabetic retinopathy, DWI = diffusion-weighted imaging, EPVS = enlarged PVS, FLAIR = fluid attenuated inversion recovery, GCL = ganglion cell layer, HD = Huntington’s disease, HP = hippocampus, ICH = intracerebral hemorrhage, iRBD = idiopathic REM sleep behavioral disorder, MCI = mild cognitive impairment, MPRAGE = magnetization-prepared rapid gradient-echo, MRA = MR angiography, NC = normal control, nRBD = without REM sleep behavioral disorder, PD = Parkinson disease, PIB = Pittsburgh compound-B, PVS = perivascular space, REM = rapid eye movement sleep, sRBD = symptomatic REM sleep behavioral disorder, SVD = small vessel disease, SWI = susceptibility-weighted imaging, WM = white matter
Fig. 4A 78-year-old female shows the perivascular space combined with the white matter hyperintensities in both subcortical white matter at the centrum semiovale level and basal ganglia.
Fig. 5A patient with mild cognitive impairment shows aggravation of the enlarged perivascular space in the basal ganglia during a serial follow-up.
Techniques for Better Visualization of PVS
| Study | Quantification Method | Subjects | MRI | Measurement | Result |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cai et al. ( | Automated segmentation using MATLAB code | NC; 3 | 7T | Total PVS volume calculated from segmented PVS pixel (multi-slice PVS images were interpolated to create a 3D volume of isotropic voxels [0.4 × 0.4 × 0.4 mm3]) | AD patients have increased PVS than age-matched halthy controls |
| Zong et al. ( | Automated segmentation using CNN, MATLAB code | NC; 45 | 7T | 4 ROIs thalamus, BG, midbrain, WM | VF and count of PVS, and rCNR with age in healthy adults |
| Ballerini et al. ( | Automated segmentation using computational assessment | NC; 533 | 3T | Centrum semiovale | Computational PVS measures correlated positively with visual PVS ratings (PVS count |
| Ballerini et al. ( | Automated segmentation using MATLAB | Dementia; 20 | 3T | Automatic segmentation is in line with visual ratings | |
| Niazi et al. ( | Automated segmentation using MATLAB | NC; 15 | 3T | WM and BG area | Quantification result VF of EPVS control vs. aMCI 2.82_0.40 v/v% vs. 4.17_0.57 v/v% |
| Piantino et al. ( | Automated segmentation using MATLAB | NC; 118 | 3T | Lobar regions of WM using standard ROI output from FreeSurfer via recon-all | MR imaging-visible PVSs detected by the segmentation algorithm can be seen in Fig 1I. PVSs were observed in the supratentorial WM of all 118 subjects in the cohort |
| Dubost et al. ( | Automated segmentation Deep learning algorithm based on CNN | NC; 2115 | 1.5T | Quantification of PVS in the midbrain, hippocampi, BG and centrum semiovale | ICC between visual and automated scores was excellent (0.75–0.88), which is higher than that of visual scoring (0.62–0.80) |
| Dubost et al. ( | Automated segmentation Deep learning algorithm based on CNN | NC; 2017 scans | 1.5T | ICC between automated scoring method and the expert's visual score was 0.74 | |
| Yang et al. ( | Deep learning based estimation model | NC; 20 | 3T | BG region | Overall, an accuracy of 87.7% at image level and 80.2% at subject level |
AD = Alzheimer’s disease, aMCI = amnestic MCI, BG = basal ganglia, CNN = convolutional neural network, EPVS = enlarged PVS, ICC = intraclass-correlation coefficient, MCI = mild cognitive impairment, NC = normal control, PD = Parkinson disease, PVS = perivascular space, rCNR = relative contrast-to-noise ratio, ROI = region of interest, SMI = subjective memory impairment, TSE = turbo spin echo, T1WI = T1-weighted image, T2WI = T2-weighted image, VF = volume fraction, WM = white matter