Immune checkpoint modulators in cancer immunotherapy: recent advances and emerging concepts.

The discovery of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) has now been universally acknowledged as a significant breakthrough in tumor therapy after the targeted treatment of checkpoint molecules: anti-programmed cell death protein 1/programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-1/PD-L1) and anti-cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen-4 (CTLA-4) on several cancer types achieved satisfying results. However, there are still quite a lot of patients suffering from severe side effects and ineffective treatment outcomes. Although the current ICI therapy is far from satisfying, a series of novel immune checkpoint molecules with remarkable preclinical and clinical benefits are being widely investigated, like the V-domain Ig suppressor of T cell activation (VISTA), which can also be called PD-1 homolog (PD-1H), and ectonucleotidases: CD39, CD73, and CD38, which belong to the ribosyl cyclase family, etc. In this review, we systematically summarized and discussed these molecules' biological structures, molecular features, and the corresponding targeted drugs, aiming to help the in-depth understanding of immune checkpoint molecules and promote the clinical practice of ICI therapy.