Closed-Loop Brain Stimulation and Paradigm Shifts in Epilepsy Surgery.

Advances in device technology have created greater flexibility in treating seizures as emergent properties of networks that exist on a local to global continuum. All patients with drug-resistant epilepsy are potential surgical candidates, given that intracranial neuromodulation through deep brain stimulation and responsive neurostimulation can reduce seizures and improve quality of life, even in multifocal and generalized epilepsies. To achieve this goal, indications and strategies for diagnostic epilepsy surgery are evolving. This article describes the state-of-the-art in epilepsy surgery and related changes in how we define indications for diagnostic and therapeutic surgical intervention.