The Structural Dynamics of Translation.

Accurate protein synthesis (translation) relies on translation factors that rectify ribosome fluctuations into a unidirectional process. Understanding this process requires structural characterization of the ribosome and translation-factor dynamics. In the 2000s, crystallographic studies determined high-resolution structures of ribosomes stalled with translation factors, providing a starting point for visualizing translation. Recent progress in single-particle cryogenic electron microscopy (cryo-EM) has enabled near-atomic resolution of numerous structures sampled in heterogeneous complexes (ensembles). Ensemble and time-resolved cryo-EM have now revealed unprecedented views of ribosome transitions in the three principal stages of translation: initiation, elongation, and termination. This review focuses on how translation factors help achieve high accuracy and efficiency of translation by monitoring distinct ribosome conformations and by differentially shifting the equilibria of ribosome rearrangements for cognate and near-cognate substrates.