Saxagliptin enhances osteogenic differentiation in MC3T3-E1 cells, dependent on the activation of AMP-activated protein kinase α (AMPKα)/runt-related transcription factor-2 (Runx-2).

Osteoporosis is a metabolic bone disease commonly observed in the elderly, and its pathogenesis is associated with declined osteogenic differentiation. Osteogenic differentiation could be facilitated by the activation of the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) pathway. Saxagliptin, an anti-diabetic agent with inhibitory effects against dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP-4), has been recently reported to induce the activation of the AMPK pathway. The present study proposes to explore the function and mechanism of Saxagliptin in osteogenic differentiation. Osteogenic differentiation induction medium (ODIM) was utilized to induce osteogenic differentiation in MC3T3-E1 cells. Significantly increased mineral nodule formation, elevated alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity, and upregulated expression of osteogenic marker genes activating transcription factor-4 (ATF-4), osteopontin (OPN), and type I collagen (Col1) were observed in ODIM-cultured MC3T3-E1 cells, all of which were further enhanced by the introduction of Saxagliptin. The elevated expression level of runt-related transcription factor-2 (Runx-2), an important transcriptional factor involved in the progression of osteogenic differentiation, in ODIM-cultured MC3T3-E1 cells was further promoted by Saxagliptin. The AMPK pathway in ODIM-cultured MC3T3-E1 cells was significantly activated by Saxagliptin, and the functions of Saxagliptin in promoting osteogenic differentiation were abolished by compound C, the inhibitor of the AMPK pathway. Conclusively, Saxagliptin enhanced osteogenic differentiation in MC3T3-E1 cells, dependent on the activation of AMPKα/RUNX-2.

Introduction

Osteoporosis is a common clinical metabolic bone disease with characteristic decreased bone mass, increased bone fragility, and elevated risk of fracture [1]. Bone homeostasis is maintained by the bone formation regulated by osteoblasts and bone resorption regulated by osteoclasts [2]. Osteoporosis develops when the balance of bone homeostasis is disrupted by either decreased bone formation or increased bone resorption [3]. Osteoblasts mainly differentiate from mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and are further transformed into mature osteoblasts, leading to bone formation [4]. Therefore, it is critical to enhance the progression of osteogenic differentiation and maturation of osteoblasts for the treatment of osteoporosis. Runt-related transcription factor-2 (Runx-2), which is also named core-binding factor 1 (Cbfa1), belongs to the Runt domain gene family and is reported to play a critical role in mediating the process of osteogenic differentiation and the maturation of osteoblasts [5,6]. In addition, the differentiation from MSCs to adipocytes can be repressed by Runx2 [7]. Thus, Runx2 is regarded as the most important transcriptional factor involved in osteogenic differentiation. The disorder of bone formation is observed in Runx2 knockout mice [8]. The expression levels of main osteogenic differentiation-related genes, such as alkaline phosphatase (ALP), osteocalcin (OCN), type I collagen, bone lipoprotein (BSP), and osteopontin (OPN), are reported to be regulated by Runx2 by its binding to the osteoblast-specific cis-element (OSE), which further activates the expression of these genes [9,10]. AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a heterotrimer protein consisting of the catalytic subunit α, the regulatory subunit β, and subunit γ. AMPK maintains the balance between the production and consumption of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and is regarded as a metabolic stress sensing enzyme [11]. AMPK has been widely proven as a potential therapeutic target for metabolic diseases, cancer, and atherosclerosis [12-15]. Currently, osteoporosis is considered as an energic metabolic disease and AMPK regulates the differentiation of osteoblasts and bone formation [16]. Recently, the activation of the AMPK pathway has been regarded as an important mechanism underlying the facilitating effects of agents against osteogenic differentiation in MC3T3‑E1 cells [17,18]. Therefore, the AMPK pathway might be a promising target for osteoporosis treatment.

Saxagliptin (Figure 1(a)) is a long-acting competitive DPP-4 inhibitor that was approved for the treatment of type II diabetes in 2011 in China. It effectively controls the blood glucose in type II diabetic patients by elevating the activity of glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) and glucose‐dependent intestinal insulin‐releasing peptide (GIP) [19]. Recently, it has been reported that the polarization of macrophages could be regulated by Saxagliptin through activating the AMPK pathway [20]. In addition, the ethanol-induced injury in gastric mucosa is ameliorated by Saxagliptin via activating the AMPK/mTOR pathway [21]. In this study, the potential facilitating effects of Saxagliptin on the osteogenic differentiation in MC3T3‑E1 cells, as well as the functional mechanism will be studied to understand the possible protective effects of Saxagliptin in osteoporosis.

Figure 1.

Cytotoxicity of Saxagliptin in MC3T3-E1 cells. (a). Molecular structure of Saxagliptin; (b). Cells were stimulated with Saxagliptin at the concentrations of 0.1, 0.2, 1, 2, 10, 20 µM for 14 days. Cell viability was measured using MTT assay (*, **, P < 0.05, 0.01 vs. vehicle group, n = 6).

Materials and methods

Cell culture and treatments

MC3T3-E1 cells were achieved from ATCC (California, USA) and cultured in α-MEM medium (Gibco, Los Angeles, USA) containing 10% FBS and 1% penicillin/streptomycin under the condition of 5% CO2 and 37°C. For the induction of osteogenic differentiation, cells were cultured in the osteogenic differentiation induction medium (ODIM) composed of α-MEM medium, 10% FBS, 1% penicillin/streptomycin, 10 mM β-glycerophosphate, and 100 µg/ml ascorbic acid.

Cell viability

3-(4,5)-dimethylthiahiazo (-z-y1)-3,5-di-phenytetrazoliumromide (MTT) assay was utilized to evaluate the cell viability. MC3T3-E1 cells were planted in a 96-well plate to be incubated at 37°C for 24 hours, followed by adding different concentrations of Saxagliptin (0.1, 0.2, 1, 2, 10, and 20 µM). After incubating for 14 days, 10 μL of MTT (5 mg/mL, Sigma-Aldrich, California, USA) was added, followed by measuring the absorption at 570 nm with a microplate reader (Bio-Rad, California, USA) [22].

Alizarin red S staining

After different treatment strategies, MC3T3-E1 cells were cultured in ODIM for 14 days, followed by being fixed with 10% paraformaldehyde for 10 min. Then, cells were stained with 1% alizarin red solution (Sigma-Aldrich, California, USA) for 5 min. Lastly, the inverted microscope (KEYENCE, Tokyo, Japan) was utilized to take images of the calcium nodules [23].

ALP activity determination

After different treatment strategies, total proteins were extracted from the treated MC3T3-E1 cells utilizing the lysis buffer (Sigma-Aldrich, California, USA). After centrifugation at 20,000 g at 4°C for 15 min, a bicinchoninic acid (BCA) kit (Abcam, Cambridge, UK) was used to quantify the concentration of proteins, followed by determining the activity of ALP with a nitrophenyl phosphate kit (Ziker, Shenzhen, China) according to the instructions of the manufacturer. Lastly, the absorption at 405 nm with a microplate reader (Bio-Rad, California, USA).

Real-time PCR

TRIzol (Invitrogen, California, USA) was utilized to extract total RNAs from treated MC3T3-E1 cells, followed by centrifugation at 16,000 g for 10 min. After being dissolved in ddH2O, the concentration of RNAs was quantified by determining the absorption at 260 nm, followed by transcribing RNAs to cDNAs with the reverse transcription kit (Applied Biosystems, Massachusetts, USA). Then, the reaction of RT-PCR was performed with the ABI 7500 Real-time PCR system (Applied Biosystems, Massachusetts, USA) utilizing the SYBR green (Invitrogen, California, USA). The procedure for the reaction is as follows: 95°C for 1 min, 40 cycles of 95°C for 30 sec, 62°C for 60 sec, 72°C for 30 sec, and 72°C for 90 sec. The 2−ΔΔCt method was utilized to measure the expression level of mRNAs, with GAPDH for the normalization.

Western blot analysis

The lysis buffer was utilized to isolate total proteins from MC3T3-E1 cells and the isolated proteins were quantified with a BCA kit (Takara, Tokyo, Japan), followed by loading 30 μg proteins for each sample onto the 12% SDS-PAGE. After separating for 1 hour, proteins in the gel were further transferred onto the PVDF membrane (Takara, Tokyo, Japan), followed by being incubated with 5% skim milk. Then, the membrane was incubated with the primary antibody against RUNX-2 (1:1000, Affintiy, Melbourne, Australian), p-AMPKα (1:1000, Affintiy, Melbourne, Australian), and β-actin (1:1000, Affintiy, Melbourne, Australian). Then the secondary antibody (1:2000, Affintiy, Melbourne, Australian) was utilized to incubate with the membrane for 1.5 h under room temperature. Lastly, the bands were incubated with the ECL solution, followed by quantification using the Image J software [24].

Statistical analysis

Data were presented as mean ± standard deviation (S.D.) and analyzed using the GraphPad software. The Student’s t-test was applied to check the difference between the 2 groups and the ANOVA method followed by the Tukey post hoc test was applied to check the differences among the groups. P < 0.05 was regarded as a significant difference.

Results

The pathogenesis of osteoporosis is considered as the imbalance of bone homeostasis. In this study, we aimed to investigate the potential effects of Saxagliptin on osteogenic differentiation. Firstly, we tested the cytotoxicity of Saxagliptin in MC3T3-E1 cells. Secondly, we examined the effects of Saxagliptin on ALP activity. Then, we evaluated the effects of Saxagliptin on the expressions of osteogenic differentiation markers including ATF-4, OPN, and Col-1. To further clarify the underlying mechanism, we assessed the effect of Saxagliptin on the AMPKα/RUNX-2 signaling pathway.

Cytotoxicity of Saxagliptin in MC3T3-E1 cells

To exclude the cytotoxicity impact of Saxagliptin against MC3T3-E1 cells when investigating its functions on osteogenic differentiation, different concentrations of Saxagliptin (0.1, 0.2, 1, 2, 10, 20 µM) were added to the culture medium of MC3T3-E1 cells for 14 days, followed by determining the cell viability to confirm the optimized concentrations of Saxagliptin for the subsequent experiments. The cell viability (Figure 1(b)) was repressed significantly when the concentration of Saxagliptin exceeded 10 µM. Therefore, in the subsequent experiments, 1 and 2 µM were utilized as the optimized incubation concentrations of Saxagliptin.

Saxagliptin promotes mineral deposition in MC3T3-E1 cells

Mineralization is one of the main characteristics of osteogenic differentiation. The mineral nodule was measured utilizing Alizarin red S staining after cells were treated with ODIM in the presence or absence of Saxagliptin (1, 2 µM) for 14 days. The formation of the mineral nodule (Figure 2) was dramatically promoted in MC3T3-E1 cells cultured with ODIM, then further greatly elevated by 1 and 2 µM Saxagliptin, indicating a facilitating effect of Saxagliptin on mineral deposition in MC3T3-E1 cells.

Figure 2.

Saxagliptin promotes mineral deposition in MC3T3-E1 cells. Cells were stimulated with osteogenic differentiation induction medium (ODIM) in the presence or absence of Saxagliptin (1, 2 µM) for 14 days. Mineral nodule formation was measured using Alizarin red S staining (***, P < 0.005 vs. vehicle group; #, ##, P < 0.05, 0.01 vs. ODIM group, n = 5–6).

Saxagliptin increases ALP activity of MC3T3-E1 cells

Elevated ALP activity is commonly associated with the progression of osteogenic differentiation. Here, it was detected in cells stimulated with ODIM in the presence or absence of Saxagliptin (1, 2 µM) for 14 days. The significantly elevated activity of ALP (Figure 3) in ODIM-cultured MC3T3-E1 cells was greatly enhanced by 1 and 2 µM Saxagliptin.

Figure 3.

Saxagliptin increases the ALP activity of MC3T3-E1 cells. Cells were stimulated with osteogenic differentiation induction medium (ODIM) in the presence or absence of Saxagliptin (1, 2 µM) for 14 days. ALP activity was measured using a commercial kit (***, P < 0.005 vs. vehicle group; #, ##, P < 0.05, 0.01 vs. ODIM group, n = 5).

Saxagliptin elevated the expression of osteogenic differentiation markers

The levels of osteogenic differentiation markers, such as ATF-4 [24], OPN [25], and Col‑1 [26], represent the degree of osteogenic differentiation in MC3T3-E1 cells. We found that the expression levels of ATF-4, OPN, and Col-1 (Figure 4(a-Figure 4c)) were dramatically promoted in ODIM-cultured MC3T3-E1 cells, then pronouncedly further elevated by 1 and 2 µM Saxagliptin, indicating a facilitating effect of Saxagliptin on the expression levels of osteogenic differentiation markers.

Figure 4.

Saxagliptin elevates the expression of osteogenic differentiation markers. Cells were stimulated with osteogenic differentiation induction medium (ODIM) in the presence or absence of Saxagliptin (1, 2 µM) for 14 days. (a). mRNA of ATF-4; (b). mRNA of osteopontin (OPN); (c). mRNA of collagen type I (Col‑1) (***, P < 0.005 vs. vehicle group; #, ##, P < 0.05, 0.01 vs. ODIM group, n = 5–6).

Saxagliptin increased the expression of Runx-2

Runx-2 is an important transcriptional factor in mediating osteogenic differentiation. Runx-2 was found significantly upregulated in ODIM-cultured MC3T3-E1 cells, then further upregulated by 1 and 2 µM Saxagliptin at both the mRNA and protein levels in a dose-dependent manner (Figure 5(a- figure 5b)).

Figure 5.

Saxagliptin increased the expression of RUNX-2. Cells were stimulated with osteogenic differentiation induction medium (ODIM) in the presence or absence of Saxagliptin (1, 2 µM) for 14 days. (a). mRNA of RUNX-2; (b). Protein level of RUNX-2 (***, P < 0.005 vs. vehicle group; #, ##, P < 0.05, 0.01 vs. ODIM group, n = 5).

Saxagliptin promoted the activation of AMPK

The activation of the AMPK pathway is reported to be closely associated with osteogenic differentiation [27]. The significantly increased expression level of p-AMPKα in ODIM- cultured MC3T3-E1 cells was further promoted by 1 and 2 µM Saxagliptin, indicating a promising activation effect of Saxagliptin on the AMPK signaling pathway in MC3T3-E1 cells (Figure 6).

Figure 6.

Saxagliptin promotes the activation of AMPK. Cells were stimulated with osteogenic differentiation induction medium (ODIM) in the presence or absence of Saxagliptin (1, 2 µM). Phosphorylated and total AMPKα was measured (***, P < 0.005 vs. vehicle group; #, ##, P < 0.05, 0.01 vs. ODIM group, n = 6).

Inhibition of AMPK abolished the effects of Saxagliptin in promoting osteogenic differentiation

To identify that Saxagliptin facilitated osteogenic differentiation by activating AMPK, MC3T3-E1 cells were cultured with ODIM with or without Saxagliptin (2 µM) or the AMPK inhibitor compound C (5 μM). The upregulated expression level of Runx-2 in ODIM-cultured MC3T3-E1 cells was further elevated by Saxagliptin, but then greatly repressed by the co-administration of compound C (Figure 7(a)). The activated ALP activity in ODIM- cultured MC3T3-E1 cells induced by Saxagliptin was dramatically reversed by compound C (Figure 7(b)). Lastly, the increased mineral nodule formation in ODIM-cultured MC3T3-E1 cells induced by Saxagliptin was greatly suppressed by compound C (Figure 7(c)). These data collectively reveal that the promoting effect of Saxagliptin in osteogenic differentiation was significantly abolished by the inhibition of the AMPK pathway.

Figure 7.

Inhibition of AMPK abolished the effects of Saxagliptin in promoting osteogenic differentiation. Cells were stimulated with osteogenic differentiation induction medium (ODIM) in the presence or absence of Saxagliptin (2 µM) or the AMPK inhibitor compound C (5 μM). (a). mRNA of RUNX-2; (b). ALP activity; (c). Mineral nodule formation (***, P < 0.005 vs. vehicle group; ##, P < 0.01 vs. ODIM group; &&, P < 0.01 vs. ODIM+ Saxagliptin group, n = 5).

Discussion

ALP activity and Alizarin red S staining are regular methods for the determination of the degree of osteogenic differentiation. ALP is an enzyme widely distributed in the liver, skeleton, and kidneys. The enhanced activity and elevated mRNA level of ALP are regarded as some of the main characteristics of differentiation from pre-osteoblasts to mature osteoblasts [28]. The chelate complexes are formed on the membranes of differentiated osteoblasts by the binding of the Alizarin red S stain to calcium ions, which results in the production of orange deposits. By semi-quantitative detection on a microplate reader, the changes of calcium salt deposition in cell matrix are reflected, indicating the degree of osteogenic differentiation [29]. The increased ALP activity and elevated mineral nodule formation in the Alizarin red S staining assay were observed in ODIM-treated MC3T3-E1 cells, consistent with previous reports [30]. After the introduction of Saxagliptin, the ALP activity and mineralization in ODIM-treated MC3T3-E1 cells were significantly facilitated, indicating the positive effect of Saxagliptin on osteogenic differentiation in MC3T3-E1 cells. As mentioned in the published paper, the elevated production of osteogenic differentiation markers, such as ATF-4, OPN, and Col1, is observed in ODIM-cultured MC3T3-E1 cells [30], which was also observed in the present study. The facilitating effects of Saxagliptin on osteogenic differentiation were further verified by the elevated expression levels of osteogenic differentiation markers.

Runx-2, also named AML3, CBFA1, and PEBP2αA belongs to the family of Runt-related transcriptional factors and contains a Runt domain that binds with DNA and a β subunit [31,32]. Runx-2 is reported to be involved in osteogenic differentiation through multiple mechanisms, including upregulating the expression levels of osteogenic differentiation markers such as Col1α1, OPN, BSP, OCN, and Fn1 [33,34]. In Runx-2−/− mice and Runx-2 knockout mice osteoblasts, significantly declined expression levels of OCN, OPN, and Col1α1 were observed [8,35]. Ossification obstacles are observed in Runx-2−/− mice, verified by disappeared endosteum and endochondral ossification [36]. We found that the expression level of Runx-2 was dramatically elevated in ODIM-treated MC3T3-E1 cells, consistent with the observation reported by Chai [37]. After treatment with Saxagliptin, Runx-2 was greatly upregulated, verifying the facilitating effects of Saxagliptin on osteogenic differentiation.

AMPK subunits are widely expressed in bone tissues and osteocytes [38]. Melbine, a classic AMPK activator, has been proven to facilitate the differentiation from MSCs to osteoblasts, which is abolished by blocking the AMPK pathway [39,40]. Kanazawa reported that in AMPK−/− mice, retarded skeletal development, shortened cortical bone length, and repressed bone density were observed, compared to the wild type [41]. It is reported that activated AMPK promotes the differentiation and mineralization of osteoblasts by upregulating bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP-2) and endothelial nitric oxide synthase [42,43]. We found that the AMPK pathway was significantly activated by Saxagliptin and the functions of Saxagliptin in promoting osteogenic differentiation were abolished by the inhibitor of the AMPK pathway, indicating that AMPK was the mediator responsible for the facilitating effects of Saxagliptin on osteogenic differentiation. The function of AMPK in osteogenic differentiation is reported to be associated with autophagy in pre-osteoblasts [17]. In future work, the regulatory effect of Saxagliptin on autophagy in MC3T3-E1 cells will be investigated to deeply explore the functional mechanism of Saxagliptin.

Conclusion

In summary, our study reveals that Saxagliptin increased ALP activity, elevated the expression of osteogenic differentiation markers including ATF-4, OPN, and Col-1. Importantly, we found that Saxagliptin significantly promoted the activation of AMPK and the expression of RUNX-2. Our results show that Saxagliptin enhanced osteogenic differentiation in MC3T3-E1 cells, dependent on the activation of the AMPKα/RUNX-2 signaling pathway.