Comparison of Herbal Medicines Used for Women's Menstruation Diseases in Different Areas of the World.

Aims: This review aims to compare the use of herbal medicine used to treat women's menstruation and the prevalence of menstrual diseases in different regions, which reveal the use of herbal medicine globally and provide scientific guidance for improving women's health. Materials and
Methods: The information available on herbal medicines for women between the years 2000 and 2021 was systematically collected via the library and electronic search systems such as Google Scholar, PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Web of Science as well as secondary resources including books and conference proceedings.
Results: Totally, 571 ethnic medicines commonly used for women's menstruation health in Asia, Europe, Oceania, Africa, and America were accounted. Zingiber officinale Roscoe (Ginger), Ruta graveolens L. (Common rue), Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels (Angelica sinensis), Foeniculum vulgare Mill (Fennel), Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don (Catharanthus roseus) and other medicines which have obvious advantages and long-term usage are utilized in the treatment of menstrual diseases. Family Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Apiaceae, Fabaceae, and Zingiberaceae are the most common medicinal plant families used for such treatments. In many instances, the application of fresh parts of plants was observed because of the healers' belief regarding the higher efficiency of the medicine made from fresh plants. Edible plants are used in a wide range of countries.
Conclusion: Women's menstruation health is directly related to their health condition. Traditional medicines of most ethnic groups have contributed to women's health care and treatment of gynecological diseases. Practitioners in this field have gained elaborate experience in treatments and medication, and assembled a large number of effective drugs and prescriptions. These experiences have also been inherited and developed by modern clinical application and scientific research. However, the basic research on these drugs is not sufficient, the knowledge of drug use has not been fully popularized, the advantages of drugs have not been fully utilized, and the guiding potential to modern drug research continues to be insufficient. As such, it is necessary to further promote and make a significant contribution to women's health.

1 Introduction

Herbal medicine has been widely used by women globally and increasingly more have shown the necessity of herbal medicines, both in treating diseases and maintaining health (Homaie Rad et al., 2021; Morehead and McInnis, 2021). Even in the modern world, there continue to be several health issues among women that cannot be cured using modern medicine; and in some regions having no modern medicines, it continues to be necessary to use herbal medicine as an alternative or supplement for women’s health and facilitate their life (Peltzer, 2009).

The menstrual pattern of a woman is indicative of her health status. Generally, menstruation occurs in regular intervals. Menstrual diseases (MD) include premenstrual syndrome (PMS), dysmenorrhea, amenorrhea, and menstrual disorders (MDs) (Kim, 2019). Ethnographic and epidemiological studies demonstrating significant variations in symptoms experienced by women with MDs living in different locales suggest that the expression of this biological event is mediated by many factors, including diet, lifestyle, cultural expectations and behaviors, and individual constitutions (Omani Samani et al., 2018). Hormonal therapy is the main treatment for MDs in modern medicine. However, considering the side effects of modern medicine, there are increasingly and more women who prefer to rely on herbal treatment based on their own traditional/national medicine.

Herbal medicines for women’s menstruation issues are used globally, and their efficacy and safety have been mentioned in previous reviews (Maleki-Saghooni et al., 2018). However, there continues to be a lack of references on the general character and differences for the administration of herbal medicine used by women all around the world. Therefore, this review aims to provide an overall blueprint on this theme by researching primary literature by gathering 130 families and 571 species of plants used by women from 22 countries and regions. The plants were categorized into four based on the types of diseases they treat. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first attempt to compile the list of herbal medicines used for women’s menstruation issues globally.

2 Methodology

2.1 Literature Search on Medicinal Plants for Menstrual Morbidity

We retrieved peer-reviewed scientific articles that documented traditional plant use in the study area related to MD. We followed the categories of menstrual morbidity defined by Harlow and Campbell (2004) and the definition of premenstrual syndrome (PMS) (Gnanasambanthan and Datta, 2019), and classified medicinal plants in four categories: 1) premenstrual syndrome; 2) dysmenorrhea; 3) amenorrhea; 4) menstrual disorders, including irregular cycles, such as a long duration of menstrual flow and excessive, heavy bleeding, (menorrhagia/polymenorrhagia) or delayed, infrequent menses (oligomenorrhea).

Literature reviews were performed during April-May 2021, using Google Scholar, PubMed, ScienceDirect, Web of Science and the keywords “menstruation,” “amenorrhea,” “arrested menstruation,” “obstructed menses,” “emmenagogue,” “dysmenorrhea,” “menses pain,” “menstrual pain,” “menstrual cramps,” “menstrual colic,” “excessive menses,” “excessive menstruation,” “menorrhagia,” “hypomenorrhea,” “oligomenorrhea,” “scanty menses,” “premenstrual syndrome,” “menstrual disorders,” “menses disturbance,” “abnormal menstruation,” “irregular menses” and “metrorrhagia” in combination with “herbs,” “medicinal plants” and “Africa,” “Asia,” “Latin America,” “Oceania,” “Europe” or specific countries in these geographical areas. Additional literature was found in reference lists of collected publications (snowball method). To limit the data to accessible digitized literature, we focused mostly on English literature published from 1980 onwards. Plant use information without a clear definition of the use, i.e., broad descriptions like “gynecological diseases” or “women’s health,” was not included in our review. Our geographical scope was restricted to countries or regions with detailed usage documents of medicinal plants. Our geographical review aimed to spread geographical coverage as much as possible over the continent, and used the most representative papers on this subject for each country/region (preferably the papers published in peer-reviewed journal and citing substantial ethnobotanical practices regarding our subject). The literatures cited in this article are evaluated according to the requirements of “the four pillars of best practice in ethnopharmacology (www.frontiersin.org/files/pdf/4_pillars_FULL_TEXT.pdf)”.

2.2 Methods of Screening Shortlisted Species

Relevant plants from the selected papers were entered in separate excel files for each of the five continents. Columns contained the four usage categories and rows represented the species. Individual cells contained the number of papers in which a particular use category for a particular species was reported. Scientific and author names were validated by the Plant List (http://www.theplantlist.org), and synonyms were merged. The most salient plants were defined as those most frequently cited in the literature (number of papers citing this species) and those mentioned for the most use categories. When describing the different countries and regions alphabetical order was applied in this paper, and Tables involving less than 20 kinds of medicinal plants are placed in the text, and tables involving more than 20 kinds of medicinal plants are provided as Supplementary Material.

3 Results

3.1 Ethnic Herbal Medicine Used for Premenstrual Syndrome

PMS is defined as a condition with emotional, physical, and behavioral symptoms that increase in severity during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle and resolve by the end of menstruation. By definition, there must be a symptom-free interval after menstruation and before ovulation. Generally, symptoms are observed up to 14 days before the start of menses, causing impairment of life, with anger and irritability being the most severe and long lasting symptoms. The exact cause of PMS is unknown (Gnanasambanthan and Datta, 2019). However, studies have shown that 3–8% of menstruating women are affected by PMS and that 15–20% of women meet the criteria for subclinical PMS (O’Brien et al., 2011). A review reported incidences of PMS globally are 40, 85, 46, and 60% for Europe, Africa, Asia, and South America, respectively (Direkvand Moghadam et al., 2013).

The management of PMS is generally performed in a step-wise manner from non-pharmacological strategies, antidepressant medications, and hormonal strategies, with surgical options being considered as a last resort (Walsh et al., 2015). Studies have shown a more sustained but less rapid improvement with the use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Vitamin B6 is also well-known as the first-line treatment for PMS (Kashanian et al., 2007). However, peripheral neuropathy of pyridoxine is characterized at doses greater than 200 mg/day (Vrolijk et al., 2017). Therefore, herbs with lower costs, better benefits, and lesser side effects have become complementary and alternative treatments for women to improve PMS.

As a concept, PMS was put forward by western medicine doctors 70 years ago, and only a handful of herbal medicines are recorded in Western countries for the treatment (Gnanasambanthan and Datta, 2019). In Western countries, anti-depressive drugs, hormonal treatment, and analgesics dominate the treatment of PMS; and plant extracts such as Vitex agnus-castus L. is commonly considered as an alternative therapy in English-speaking countries (Weisz and Knaapen, 2009).

In China, the use of Chinese herbal medicine (CHM) is very common in the treatment of PMS. Liver qi stagnation and Yin Blood deficiency are proposed as the most common root causes of PMS, and the fundamental treatment principles for PMS involve measures to regulate Liver qi to resolve stagnation and tone blood (Chou and Morse, 2005). The most common medicines for the relief of PMS are Chaihu (Bupleurum chinense DC.), Xiangfu (Cyperus rotundus L.), Danggui (Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels), Baishao (Paeonia lactiflora Pall.), and formulas such as Xiaoyao Powder and Jiawei Xiaoyao Powder (JXP). In Taiwan, JXP-centered CHM combinations were most commonly prescribed for PMS. The top 10 most commonly used single herbs for PMS are Cyperus rotundus L., Leonurus japonicus Houtt. (Oriental motherwort), Corydalis yanhusuo (Y. H. Chou and Chun C. Hsu) W. T. Wang ex Z. Y. Su and C. Y. Wu, Salvia miltiorrhiza Bge., Eucommia ulmoides Oliv., Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi, Dipsacus asperoides C. Y. Cheng at T. M. Ai, Cuscuta chinensis Lam. or Cuscuta japonica Choisy, Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi, Paeonia × suffruticosa Andrews. The top five most commonly used herbal formulas for the treatment of PMS are JXP, Danggui Shaoyao Powder, Guizhi Fuling Pills, Wenjing Decoction, and Shaofu Zhuyu Decoction (Chen et al., 2014). The ingredients of these Chinese herbal formulas are listed in Table 1.

TABLE 1

The ingredients of the Chinese herbal formulas.

Name	Number of ingredients	Ingredients	References
Danggui Shaoyao Powder	6	Paeoniae Radix Alba (Paeonia lactiflora Pall.), Chuanxiong Rhizoma (Ligusticum chuanxiong Hort.), Alismatis Rhizoma (Alisma orientate(Sam.)Juzep), Angelicae Sinensis Radix (Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels), Poria (Poria cocos (Schw.) Wolf), and Atractylodis Rhizoma alba. (Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz.)	Lee HW et al. (2016)
Guizhi Fuling Pills	5	Cinnamomi Cortex (Cinnamomum cassia Presl), Poria (Poria cocos(Schw.)Wolf), Moutan Cortex (Paeonia suffruticosa Andr.), Paeoniae Radix Alba (Paeonia lactiflora Pall.), and Persicae Semen (Prunus persica (L.) Batsch)	Sun et al. (2016)
GeGen Decoction	7	Puerariae Lobatae Radix(Pueraria lobata(Willd.)Ohwi), Ephedrae Herba (Ephedra sinica Stapf), Cinnamomi Cortex (Cinnamomum cassia Presl), Paeoniae Radix Alba (Paeonia lactiflora Pall.), Glycyrrhizae Radix Et Rhizoma (Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch.), Rhizoma Zingiberis recens (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) and Jujubae Fructus (Ziziphus jujuba Mil.)	Chai et al. (2020)
Jiawei Xiaoyao Powder	9	Bupleuri Radix (Bupleurum chinense DC.), Angelicae Sinensis Radix (Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels), Paeoniae Radix Alba (Paeonia lactiflora Pall.), Atractylodis Rhizoma (Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz.), Smilacis Glabrae Rhizoma (Smilax glabra Roxb.), Glycyrrhizae Radix Et Rhizoma (Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch.), Moutan Cortex (Paeonia suffruticosa Andr.), Gardeniae Fructus (Gardenia jasminoides Ellis), Menthae Haplocalycis Herba (Mentha canadensis L.)	Li et al. (2019)
Shaofu Zhuyu Decoction	10	Foeniculi Fructus (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.), Rhizoma Zingiberis recens (Zingiber officinale Roscoe), Cinnamomi Cortex (Cinnamomum cassia Presl), Paeoniae Radix Alba (Paeonia lactiflora Pall.), Angelicae Sinensis Radix (Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels), Chuanxiong Rhizoma (Ligusticum chuanxiong Hort.), Myrrh (Commiphora myrrha Engl.), Corydalis Rhizoma (Corydalis yanhusuo W. T. Wang), Typhae Pollen (Typha angustifolia L.), and Faeces Trogopterpri (Trogopterus xanthipes Milne Edwards)	Lee H et al. (2016)
Wenjing Decoction	12	Asini Corii Colla (Equus asinus L.), Ophiopogonis Radix (Ophiopogon japonicus (L. f) Ker-Gawl.), Pinelliae Rhizoma (Pineilia ternata (Thunb.) Breit.), Angelicae Sinensis Radix (Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels), Glycyrrhizae Radix Et Rhizoma (Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch.), Cinnamomi Cortex (Cinnamomum cassia Presl), Paeoniae Radix Alba (Paeonia lactiflora Pall.), Chuanxiong Rhizoma (Ligusticum chuanxiong Hort.), Ginseng Radix Et Rhizoma (Panax ginseng C. A. Mey), Moutan Cortex (Paeonia suffruticosa Andr.), Euodiae Fructus (Euodia rutaecarpa (Juss.) Benth.) and Rhizoma Zingiberis recens (Zingiber officinale Roscoe)	Gao et al. (2017)
Xiaoyao Powder	8	Bupleuri Radix (Bupleurum chinense DC.), Radix Angelicae Sinensis Radix (Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels), Paeoniae Radix Alba (Paeonia lactiflora Pall.), Atractylodis Rhizoma (Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz.), Poria (Poria cocos (Schw.) Wolf), Glycyrrhizae Radix Et Rhizoma (Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch.), Menthae Haplocalycis Herba (Mentha canadensis L.), and Rhizoma Zingiberis recens (Zingiber officinale Roscoe)	Liu et al. (2021)

In Iran, Salvia officinalis L. extract appears to be more effective in reducing the physical and psychological symptoms associated with PMS, when compared to placebo (Abdnezhad et al., 2019). Vitex agnus-castus L and Hypericum perforatum L. with lower doses of vitamin B6 are well tolerated and effective drugs to treat females with moderate to severe premenstrual syndrome in Iran (Ghazanfarpour et al., 2016). In Persian traditional medicine, saffron (dried stigma of Crocus sativus L.) is used for depression, which has been confirmed by modern medicine to be achieved through a serotonergic mechanism (Agha-Hosseini et al., 2008). A review about treatments in Iran has shown a reduction in PMS symptoms after consumption Hypericum perforatum L. (St. John’s wort), Vitex agnus-castus L. (Chasteberry), Crocus sativus L. (saffron), Ginkgo biloba L. (ginkgo), and soy (Golmakani et al., 2010). This is consistent with the data that we collected.

In Japan, Kampo medicine is the most preferred treatment choice for PMS. Kampo is a part of the official Japanese medical system and it is used alone or in combination with Western medicine for the treatment of complex health conditions, such as chronic health problems, age-related health problems, and lifestyle or stress-related disorders. We recorded 22 types of kampo’s that are the most commonly used ingredients (single herb) in PMS (Gepshtein et al., 2008) as shown in Table 2. Inochinohaha White is considered a medicine primarily used to treat PMS by attenuating anxiety-like behavior through GABAA receptor and brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression, which composed of 11 herbs: Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels, Paeonia lactiflora Pall., Atractylodes lancea (Thunb.) DC., Cinnamomum verum J. Presl, Rheum palmatum L., Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer, Cnidium monnieri (L.) Cusson, Poria cocos (Schw.) Wolf, Alisma plantago-aquatica L., Paeonia suffruticosa Andr. and Prunus persica (L.) Batsch (Iba et al., 2021).

TABLE 2

Japanese herbal medicine for treating premenstrual syndrome.

Family	Scientific name	Used part	Habit
Lauraceae	Cinnamomum cassia (L.) J. Presl	Bark	Tree
Paeoniaceae	Paeonia lactiflora Pall.	Root	Herb
Rosaceae	Prunus persica (L.) Batsch	Seed	Tree
Paeoniaceae	Paeonia × suffruticosa Andrews	Bark	Shrub
Asteraceae/Compositae	Atractylodes lancea (Thunb.) DC.	Rhizome	Herb
Alismataceae	Alisma orientalis (Sam.) Juzep.	Rhizome	Herb
Polyporaceae	Poria cocos (Schw.) Wolf	Root
Apiaceae	Ligusticum chuanxiong Hort.	Rhizome	Herb
Apiaceae	Angelica acutiloba var. lineariloba (Kitag.) Hikino	Root	Herb
Papaveraceae	Corydalis yanhusuo (Y. H. Chou and Chun C. Hsu) W. T. Wang ex Z. Y. Su and C. Y. Wu	Tuber	Herb
Ostreidae	Ostrea gigas thunberg	Root
Fabaceae	Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch.	Root	Herb
Zingiberaceae	Amomum villosum var. xanthioides (Wall. ex Baker) T. L. Wu and S. J. Chen	Semen	Herb
Araliaceae	Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer	Root	Herb
Araceae	Pinellia ternate (Thunb.) Breit	Tuber	Herb
Rutaceae	Aurantii Nobilis Pericarpium	Peel	Tree
Zingiberaceae	Zingiber officinale Roscoe	Rhizome	Herb
Polyporaceae	Polyporus umbellatus
Apiaceae	Foeniculum vulgare Mill.	Seed	Herb
Zingiberaceae	Alpinia officinarum Hance	Rhizome	Herb
Rhamniaceae	Ziziphus jujuba Mill.	Fruit	Tree

In Korea, herbal medicines for the treatment of PMS are Hypericum perforatum L. (St. John’s Wort), Odor of Crocus sativus L. (saffron), Vitex agnus-castus L. (Chasteberry), Ginkgo biloba L. (Ginkgo), Cirsium japonicum (Thunb.) Fisch. ex DC. (Cirsii Japonici Herba Carbonisata), Elsholtzia splendens Nakai ex F. Maekawa (Jang et al., 2012).

In South Africa, the pharmaceutical application of valerian (Valeriana officinalis L.) for the treatment of PMS is due to its sedative, anticonvulsant, hypnotic effects, and anxiolytic activity (Ghaderi and Jafari, 2014).

In summary, the most commonly used formula for the treatment of PMS in China is JXP. The most commonly used single drugs in the formulation are Cyperus rotundus L. and Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels. In Western countries such as the United States, Vitex agnus-castus L. (chasteberry) and Matricaria chamomilla L. (chamomile) are regarded as the most available herbal alternative therapies.

3.2 Ethnic Herbal Medicine Used for Dysmenorrhea

Dysmenorrhea refers to the pain and swelling in the lower abdomen before and after menstruation or during menstruation, accompanied by backache or other discomfort (French, 2005). There are two types of dysmenorrhea: Primary dysmenorrhea refers to pain with no obvious pathological pelvic disease, whereas Secondary dysmenorrhea is caused by underlying pelvic conditions or pathology. Primary dysmenorrhea is considered to be caused by the release of prostaglandins in the menstrual fluid, which causes uterine contractions and pain. The reported prevalence of dysmenorrhea of any severity varies between 16 and 91% in women of reproductive age (Ju et al., 2014). Females who suffer from dysmenorrhea widely use non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs that reduce muscle spasm by inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis and vasopressin secretion (Sosorburam et al., 2019). In Western medicine, the main treatment trends tend to relieve prostaglandins synthesis and suppress their production from biosynthesis.

Native Americans commonly used whole plants of Artemisia californica Less. and fruits of Rhus glabra L. made a decoction to treat dysmenorrhea (Schmid and Moerman, 1998). Native American plants such as black haw (Viburnum prunifolium L.) and Viburnum opulus L. also utilized to treat painful menstruation (Lans et al., 2018).

According to the theories of CHM, the main cause of dysmenorrhea is Qi stasis caused by the invasion of the six exogenous pathogenic factors. Qi stasis results in the blockage of blood flow, which further leads to blood stasis and lumps. GeGen Decoction, Danggui Shaoyao Powder, and Guizhi Fuling Pillsare the famous Chinese prescriptions that are widely used in China to treat primary dysmenorrhea (Sosorburam et al., 2019). The ingredients of the Chinese herbal formulas are listed in Table 1. There are six types of Yao medicine used in treating dysmenorrhea, and among these three types of medicinal parts of plants are whole plants. Yao women are the best at using medicine baths to treat gynecological diseases, which is their ancient inheritance method (Long and Li, 2004; Li et al., 2006). As a famous herbal medicine used by Tujia and Miao Nationality, Panax japonicus (T. Nees) C. A. Mey is widely used for treating dysmenorrhea by local people (Deng et al., 2020). In Taiwan, Danggui Shaoyao Powder is the most frequently used formula that is prescribed by CHM doctors in Taiwan for treating menstrual cramps. The research shows that, among women with primary dysmenorrhea, CHM treatment is widely accepted by women in different ages, particularly those aged 21–30 years or those from lower income groups (Pan et al., 2014).

In India, a total of 38 types of herbs for the treatment of dysmenorrhea were collected from four pieces of literature (Jadhav and Bhutani, 2005; Vidyasagar and Prashantkumar, 2007; Bhatia et al., 2015; Das et al., 2015). Plants from the Asteraceae family are the main ones used to prepare dosages in the forms of decoction and infusion. Generally, they are administered orally. The leaf is the most important part of the plant that is used for medicinal purposes. Among them, 23 species are herbs, nine species are trees and two species are shrubs. Vitex negundo L. is the plant with the highest usage frequency. These four plants have been used in more than two countries: Artemisia vulgaris L., Achyranthes aspera L., Matricaria chamomilla L., and Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Artemisia vulgaris L. has been used to treat dysmenorrhea in India, Italy and Vietnam. Its multiple parts are effective in the treatment of dysmenorrhea.

In Italy, a total of 53 types of herbs were noted for the treatment of dysmenorrhea (Motti et al., 2019). The most common family of the plants are Asteraceae. The main forms of dosages are decoction and infusion. The most commonly used route of administration is oral administration. The most common medicinal parts are leaves. Among them, 37 species are herbs, eight species are trees, two species are shrubs and two species are vines. The herbal remedies mostly used for dysmenorrhea disorders are chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.), maidenhair fern (Adiantum capillus-veneris L.), yarrow (Achillea millefolium L.), and laurel (Laurus nobilis L.), which are taken orally, or as an infusion or decoction.

In South Africa, 30 types of plants are used to treat dysmenorrhea (Steenkamp, 2003). Roots are the medicinal parts of a majority of herbs. The most common dosage form is decoction. South Africa has a rich species of the herbs and most of them are local and unique species, such as Commelina africana L. Further, most of their names are related to the functional significance of the respective plants, such as Pterocarpus angolensis DC. (bloodwood), which is will used to treat dysmenorrhea, menorrhagia, and related diseases in South Africa. Euclea crispa Thunb. G˝urke is administered as enemas.

Herbs used in other countries to treat dysmenorrhea are listed in Table 3. See the Supplementary Material “Dysmenorrhea” for other specific contents.

TABLE 3

Herbal medicine for treating dysmenorrhea.

Country/Region	Family	Scientific name	Used part	Preparation	Application	Habit	References
America	Adoxaceae	Viburnum prunifolium L.	—	—	—	Shrub	Lans et al. (2018), Schmid and Moerman (1998)
America	Lauraceae	Viburnum opulus L.	—	—	—	Shrub
America	Asteraceae	Artemisia californica Less.	Whole plant	Decoction		Herb
America	Anacardiaceae	Rhus glabra L.	Fruit	Decoction		Shrub
Brazil	Apiaceae	Coriandrum sativum L.	Seed	Infusion	—	Herb	Di Stasi et al. (2002), Bieski et al. (2015)
Brazil	Apiaceae	Pimpinella anisum L.	—	—	—	Herb
Brazil	Aristolochiaceae	Aristolochia cymbifera Mart and Zucc	—	—	—	Shrub
Brazil	Asteraceae	Ageratum conyzoides L.	Root	Infusion	—	Herb
Brazil	Euphorbiaceae	Jatropha curcas L.	—	—	—	Shrub
Brazil	Fabaceae	Copaifera langsdorffii Desf.	—	—	—	Tree
Brazil	Lamiaceae	Hyptis crenata Pohl. Ex Benth.	Root	Infusion	—	Herb
Brazil	Lamiaceae	Mentha x piperita L.	—	—	—	Herb
Brazil	Lamiaceae	Origanum majorana L.	—	—	—	Herb
Brazil	Lauraceae	Cinnamomum verum J. Presl	—	—	—	Tree
Brazil	Lauraceae	Cryptocarya mandioccana Meisn.	—	—	—	Tree
Brazil	Lauraceae	Persea americana Mill.	—	—	—	Tree
Brazil	Myrtaceae	Leptospermum scoparium J. R. Forst. and G. Forst.	—	—	—	Shrub
Brazil, India, Trinidad and, Tobago	Rutaceae	Ruta graveolens L.	Aerial part, whole plant (India), leaf (Brazil, India, Trinidad and Tobago)	Infusion (Brazil)	Orally	Herb
Brazil, Trinidad, and Tobago	Lamiaceae	Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R. Br.	—	—	—	Herb
China	Apiaceae	Angelica dahurica (Fisch. ex Hoffm.) Benth. et Hook. f. ex Franch. et Sav	Root	—	—	Herb	Long and Li (2004), Li et al. (2006)
China	Araceae	Acorus tatarinowii Schott	Whole plant	Decoction or medicine bath	Topicaly	Herb
China	Fabaceae	Crotalaria ferrnginea Grah. ex Benth	Whole plant	Decoction or medicine bath	Topicaly	Herb
China	Lamiaceae	Bryophyllum pinnatum (L.F.) Oken	Whole plant	Decoction or medicine bath	Topicaly	Herb
China	Lamiaceae	Leonurus artemisia (Laur.) S. Y. Hu F	Aerial part	—	—	Herb
China	Ranunculaceae	Clematis chrysocoma Franch.	Woody stem	Decoction or medicine bath	Topicaly	Vine
Iran	Apiaceae	Echinophora platyloba DC.	—	—	—	Herb	Mirabi et al. (2014)
Iran	Asteraceae	Achillea willhemsii L.	—	—	—	Herb
Iran	Lamiaceae	Stachys lavandulifolia Vahl	—	—	—	Herb
Iran	Lamiaceae	Zataria multiflora Boiss.	—	—	—	Herb
Iran	Lauraceae	Cinnamomum verum J.Presl	—	—	—	Tree
Iran	Rhamnaceae	Cuminum cyminum L.	—	—	—	Herb
Iran	Valerianaceae	Valeriana officinalis L.	—	—	—	Herb
Iran	Verbenaceae	Vitex agnus-castus L.	—	—	—	Shrub
Iran	Asteraceae	Matricaria chamomilla L.	—	—	Orally	Herb
Iran	Zingiberaceae	Zingiber officinale Roscoe	Rhizome	Powder	Orally	Herb
Iran, Pakistan	Apiaceae	Foeniculum vulgare Mill.	Root, leaf (Iran, Pakistan), fruit (Iran, Pakistan)	—	Orally (Pakistan)	Herb	Ullah et al. (2014), Aziz et al. (2018), Tariq et al. (2018), Islam et al. (2021)
Pakistan	Asteraceae	Achillea millefolium L.	Leaf, root	Powder + water or milk	—	Herb
Pakistan	Amaranthaceae	Achyranthes aspera L.	—	Decoction	Orally	Herb
Pakistan	Poaceae/Gramineae	Arundo donax L.	Stem, leaf, fruit	—	—	Herb
Pakistan	Asteraceae	Erigeron bonariensis L.	Whole plants, oil, shoot, leaf	Infusion	—	Herb
Pakistan	Boraginaceae	Arnebia hispidissima (Lehm.) A.DC.	Whole plant	Diffusion and decoction	—	Herb
Pakistan	Convolvulaceae	Ipomoea eriocarpa R. Br.	Leaf, Root	—	—	Shrub
Pakistan	Cyperaceae	Cyperus rotundus L.	Whole plant (Pakistan), root (India), rhizome	Decoction	—	Herb
Pakistan	Euphorbiaceae	Euphorbia serpens Kunth	Whole plant	—	Orally	Herb
Pakistan	Moraceae	Ficus benghalensis L.	Latex, Bark, Fruit	—	—	Tree
Pakistan	Nyctaginaceae	Boerhaavia procumbens	Whole plant	Juice	Orally	Herb
Pakistan	Plantiginaceae	Veronica agrestis L.	Whole plant	Decoction	Orally	Herb
Pakistan	Polygonaceae	Persicaria amplexicaulis (D. Don) Ronse Decr.	Flower, leaf, whole plant	—	—	Herb
Poland	Asteraceae	Ambrosia elatior L.	Leaf	Infusion	—	Herb	Kujawska and Hilgert (2014)
Poland	Asteraceae	Matricaria recutita L.	Inflorescence, aerial part	Infusion, mate, poultice	—	Herb
Poland	Asteraceae	Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch. Bip	Aerial part, leaf	Infusion	—	Herb
Poland	Lamiaceae	Cunila microcephala Benth.	Leaf, stem	Infusion	—	Herb
Poland	Lamiaceae	Ocimum sp.	Leaf, stem	Infusion	—	Herb
Poland	Asteraceae	Tanacetum vulgare L.	Aerial part (Italy), leaf (Poland)	Infusion	Orally	Herb
Poland	Poaceae/Gramineae	Saccharum officinarum L.	Leaf	Infusion, mate	—	Cane
Poland	RaddiPteridaceae	Hemionitis tomentosa (Lam.)	Leaf, stem	Infusion	—	Herb
Romania	Rosaceae	Fragaria vesca L.	Leaf	Infusion	—	Herb	Tita et al. (2009)
Romania	Araliaceae	Hedera helix L.	Leaf	Infusion	Orally	Vine
Thailand	Araceae	Acorus calamus L.	Rhizome	—	—	Herb	Sitthithawor et al. (2019)
Thailand	Liliaceae	Allium sativum L.	Clove	—	—	Herb
Thailand	Zingiberaceae	Boesenbergia rotunda (L.) Mansf.	Rhizome	—	—	Herb
Thailand	Zingiberaceae	Curcuma zedoaria (Christm.) Roscoe	Rhizome	—	—	Herb
Thailand	Myristicaceae	Myristica fragrans Houtt.	Seed	—	—	Tree
Thailand	Zingiberaceae	Zingiber montanum (J. Koenig) Link ex A. Dietr.	Rhizome	—	—	Herb
Trinidad and Tobago	Apiaceae	Eryngium foetidum L.	Leaf	—	—	Herb	Lans (2007)
Trinidad and Tobago	Aristolochiaceae	Aristolochia trilobata L.	Root	—	—	Herb
Trinidad and Tobago	Asteraceae	Ambrosia peruviana Willd.	—	—	—	Herb
Trinidad and Tobago	Boraginaceae	Cordia curassavica (Jacq.) Roem. and Schult.	Leaf	—	—	Shrub
Trinidad and Tobago	Euphorbiaceae	Croton gossypiifolius Vahl	Leaf	—	—	Tree
Trinidad and Tobago	Fabaceae	Entada polystachya (L.) DC.	Twigs	—	—	Vine, Shrub
Trinidad and Tobago	Scrophulariaceae	Capraria biflora L.	Leaf	—	—	Herb
Uganda	Aloaceae	Aloe vera L.	Leaf	Decoction	Orally	Herb	Kamatenesi-Mugisha and Oryem-Origa (2007)
Uganda	Amaranthaceae	Aerva lanata (L.) Schult.	Leaf	Decoction	Orally	Herb
Uganda	Asteraceae	Vernonia amygdalina Del.	Leaf, root	Decoction	Orally	Shrub
Uganda	Bignoniaceae	Markhamia lutea K. Schum.	Bark	Decoction	Orally	Tree
Uganda	Caesalpiniaceae	Cassia occidentalis L.	Leaf, root	Decoction	Orally	Herb
Uganda	Chenopodiaceae	Chenopodium opulifolium DC.	Leaf, bark, stem, seeds	Decoction	Orally	Herb
Uganda	Convolvulaceae	Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.	Leaf, root tuber	Decoction	Orally	Herb
Uganda	Euphorbiaceae	Manihot esculenta Crantz.	Leaf	Decoction	Orally	Shrub
Uganda	Fabaceae	Erythrina abyssinica Lam.	Leaf, bark, flower	Decoction	Orally	Tree
Uganda	Fabaceae	Indigofera arrecta A. Rich.	Leaf, root	Decoction	Orally	Shrub
Uganda	Fabaceae	Pseudarthria hookeri Wight and Arn.	Leaf	Decoction	Orally	Shrub
Uganda	Malvaceae	Gossypium hirsutum L.	Root	Decoction	Orally	Herb
Uganda	Malvaceae	Pavonia burchellii (DC.) R.A. Dyer	Leaf	Decoction	Orally	Shrub
Uganda	Moraceae	Ficus natalensis Hochst.	Aerial parts, leaf	Decoction	Orally	Tree
Uganda	Myrtaceae	Eucalyptus citriodora Hook.	Leaf, fruit,gum	Decoction	Orally	Tree
Uganda	Myrtaceae	Eucalyptus globulus Labill.	Leaf	Decoction	Orally	Tree
Uganda	Myrtaceae	Eucalyptus grandis W.Hill.	Leaf	Decoction	Orally	Tree
Uganda	Umbelliferae	Daucus carota L.	Root tuber	Decoction	Orally	Herb
Uganda	Vitaceae	Cyphostemma adenocaule Wild and Drum.	Leaf, root	Decoction	Orally	Herb
Uganda	Zingiberaceae	Zingiber officinale Roscoe	Root tuber	Decoction	Orally	Herb
Vietnam	Asteraceae	Artemisia vulgaris L.	Fresh	—	—	Herb	Kurian (2012)
Vietnam	Apiaceae	Centella asiatica L.	Whole plant	—	—	Herb

This section contains a total of 80 families and 217 species of plants from 16 countries and regions that are used for the treatment of dysmenorrhea. Asteraceae is the most commonly used among such species and there are five plants that have records of treating dysmenorrhea in three countries Ruta graveolens L. can treat dysmenorrhea and this is mentioned in two Brazilian documents. Italian women use its aerial parts to make decoctions, while women from Trinidad and Tobago use its leaves. Leaves, flowers, stems, and fruits of Artemisia vulgaris L. are used in India to treat dysmenorrhea and amenorrhea. The fresh whole plant is used by Vietnamese women, while Italian women use its aerial parts to make an infusion to treat dysmenorrhea. Considering Cyperus rotundus L., Indian women use its root and rhizome, while Pakistani women use the whole plant to make a decoction for oral administration and Yunnan Yao women in China use its root. Considering Foeniculum vulgare Mill. (Fennel), Pakistani women use its leaves and fruits orally; Iranian women use its roots, leaves, and fruits; Italian women use a decoction made from its seeds; and Chinese women use its dried and mature fruit. All three countries use the rhizome of Zingiber officinale Roscoe (ginger) to treat menstrual pain but the dosage forms are different: Malaysians make a lotion, Indians make a decoction, and Iranians make a powder.

3.3 Ethnic Herbal Medicine Used for Amenorrhoea

Amenorrhea (loss of menstrual period) is the absence of menstruation or absence of periods. There are two types of amenorrhea: Primary amenorrhea and Secondary amenorrhea. Primary amenorrhea can be diagnosed if a patient has normal secondary sexual characteristics but no menarche by 16 years of age. Secondary amenorrhea is the absence of menses for 3 months in women with previously normal menstruation and for 9 months in women with oligomenorrhea previously (Master-Hunter and Heiman, 2006). Secondary amenorrhea is more common than primary amenorrhea. The normal menstrual cycle involves a complex interaction between the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis; any disruption in this interaction can cause amenorrhea (Edmonds, 2007). Among women of reproductive age, the prevalence of amenorrhea ranged from approximately 5–13% (Harlow and Campbell, 2004). Hormonal therapy based on estrogen and progesterone compounds is the mainstay of the treatment for such conditions (Bergeron et al., 2010).

In native American herbs used to treat amenorrhea, the roots of Acorus calamus L. are made into infusion, while the rhizomes of Acorus calamus L. are used to treat dysmenorrhea in Thailand (Schmid and Moerman, 1998).

CHM often uses herbs that promote blood circulation, remove blood stasis, regulate menstruation and relieve pain to treat amenorrhea. Generally, these herbs can simultaneously treat dysmenorrhea. Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels, Leonurus japonicus Houtt., and Ligusticum chuanxiong Hort. (Miao et al., 2019) are the three typical examples. Curcuma longa L. is the herbal medicine used by Chinese and Malaysians to treat amenorrhea. Barks and twigs of Cinnamomum cassia (L.) J. Presl both appear in Chinese and Japanese herbal medicines for the treatment of amenorrhea.

Japanese Herbal (Kampo) Medicine, which is covered by national health insurance in Japan, is often prescribed in the primary care field, and is also applied as an alternative remedy for several gynecological diseases, such as MDs and menopausal symptoms. Tokishakuyakusan (Chinese name, Dang gui shao yao san), Keishibukuryogan (Chinese name, Gui zhi fu ling wan), Kamishoyosan (Chinese name, Jia wei xiao yao san) and Unkeito (Chinese name, Wen jing tang) are most commonly used by Japanese women. Paeonia lactiflora Pall. is the most frequently ingredient contained in all the four herbal formulas (Kogure, 2011). The ingredients of the Japanese herbal formulas are listed in Table 4.

TABLE 4

Herbal medicine for treating amenorrhea.

Country/Region	Family	Scientific name	Used part	Preparation	Application	Habit	References
America	Acoraceae	Acorus calamus L.	Root	Infusion		Herb	Schmid and Moerman (1998)
America	Cannabaceae	Celtis occidentalis L.		Decoction		Tree
America	Celastraceae	Euonymus americanus L.	Whole plant	Decoction		Shrub
America	Fabaceae/Leguminosae	Vicia sativa subsp. nigra (L.) Ehrh.	Whole plant	Decoction		Herb
America	Rhamnaceae	Ceanothus americanus L.	Root	Decoction		Shrub
America	Rosaceae	Malus coronaria var. coronaria	Root	Decoction		Tree, Shrub
America	Rubiaceae	Mitchella repens L.	Whole plant	Infusion		Herb
Bangladesh	Amaranthaceae	Amaranthus spinosus L.	Root	Juice	Orally	Herb	Kadir et al. (2014)
Bangladesh	Apocynaceae	Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don.	Root	Juice	Orally	Subshrub
Bangladesh	Euphorbiaceae	Jatropha gossypifolia L.	Leaf	Juice	Orally	Shrub, Tree
Bangladesh	Lamiaceae	Hyptis capitata Jac q.	Root	Juice	Orally	Herb
Bangladesh	Malvaceae	Urena lobata L.	Root	Juice	Orally	Subshrub
Bangladesh	Moraceae	Streblus asper Lour.	Root	Juice	Orally	Shrub, Tree
India	Apiaceae	Daucus carota L.	Seed	Tablet	Orally	Herb	Jadhav and Bhutani (2005), Vidyasagar and Prashantkumar (2007), Bhatia et al. (2015), Das et al. (2015)
India	Apiaceae	Foeniculum vulgare Mill.	Seed	Raw	Orally	Herb
India	Aristolochiaceae	Aristolochia bracteata Ritz.	Leaf, root	—	—	Herb
India	Brassicaceae	Lepidium sativum L.	Seed	Decoction	Orally	Herb
India	Brassicaceae	Raphanus sativus L.	Seed	Powder	Orally	Herb
India	Caesalpiniaceae	Tamarindus indica L.	Root, bark	Powder + Milk	Orally	Tree
India	Caricaceae	Carica papaya L.	Unripe Fruit	Cooked Along With Ground Coconut Carnel, Green Chilly, Onion And Sufficient Quantity Of Salt	Orally	Herb
India	Chenopodiaceae	Chenopodium album L.	Seed	Filtrate	Orally	Herb
India	Fabaceae	Trigonella foenum-graecum L.	Whole plant	Raw	Orally	Herb
India	Fabaceae	Indigofera tinctoria L.	—	Powder + Milk	Orally	Shrub
India	Juglandaceae	Juglans regia L.	Fruit rind	Decoction	Orally	Tree
India	Lamiaceae	Ocimum tenuiflorum L.	Leaf, Seed	Decoction	Orally	Herb
India	Liliaceae	Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f.	Leaf	Gel	—	Herb
India	Pedaliaceae	Sesamum indicum L.	Seed	—	—	Herb
India	Poaceae/Gramineae	Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.	Whole plant	Mixed In Rice Soup	Orally	Herb
India	Ranunculaceae	Nigella sativa L.	Seed	—	—	Herb
India	Rutaceae	Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f.	Fruit	Juice	Orally	Tree
India	Verbenaceae	Vitex negundo L.	Root	Cooked Along With Rice In The Form Of Porridge	Orally	Shrub
Italy	Rutaceae	Ruta graveolens L.	Aerial part, Leaf	Decoction	Orally	Herb	Motti et al. (2019)
Japan	Apiaceae	Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels a	Root	Powder	Orally	Herb	Kogure (2011)
Japan	Apiaceae	Bupleurum scorzonerifolium Willd. a	Root	Powder	Orally	Herb
Japan	Asteraceae/Compositae	Atractylodes lancea (Thunb.) DC. a	Rhizome	Powder	Orally	Herb
Japan	Fabaceae	Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch. a	Root	Powder	Orally	Herb
Japan	Lamiaceae	Mentha canadensis L. a	Whole Plant	Powder	Orally	Herb
Japan	Polyporaceae	Poria cocos (Schw.) Wolf a	Sclerotium	Powder	Orally
Japan	Ranunculaceae	Paeonia lactiflora Pall. a	Root	Powder	Orally	Herb
Japan	Ranunculaceae	Paeonia suffruticosa Andr. a	Bark	Powder	Orally	Shrub
Japan	Rubiaceae	Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis a	Fructus	Powder	Orally	Herb
Japan	Zingiberaceae	Zingiber officinale Roscoe a	Rhizome	Powder	Orally	Herb
Japan	Lauraceae	Cinnamomum cassia (L.) J. Presl b	Twig	Pill	Orally	Tree
Japan	Lauraceae	Cinnamomum cassia (L.) J. Presl b	Bark	Pill	Orally	Tree
Japan	Polyporaceae	Poria cocos (Schw.) Wolf b	Carpophores	Pill	Orally
Japan	Ranunculaceae	Paeonia lactiflora Pall. b	Root	Pill	Orally	Herb
Japan	Ranunculaceae	Paeonia lactiflora Pall. b	Root bark	Pill	Orally	Herb
Japan	Rosaceae	Prunus persica (L.) Batsch b	Seed	Pill	Orally	Tree
Japan	Alismataceae	Alisma orientalis (Sam.) Juzep. c	Tuber	Powder	Orally	Herb
Japan	Apiaceae	Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels c	Root	Powder	Orally	Herb
Japan	Apiaceae	Cnidium officinale Makino c	Root stem	Powder	Orally	Herb
Japan	Asteraceae/Compositae	Atractylodes lancea (Thunb.) DC. c	Rhizome	Powder	Orally	Herb
Japan	Polyporaceae	Poria cocos (Schw.) Wolf c	Sclerotium	Powder	Orally
Japan	Ranunculaceae	Paeonia lactiflora Pall. c	Root	Powder	Orally	Herb
Japan	Apiaceae	Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels d	Root	Decoction	Orally	Herb
Japan	Apiaceae	Cnidium officinale Makino d	Rhizome	Decoction	Orally	Herb
Japan	Araceae	Pinellia ternate (Thunb.) Breit. d	Tuber	Decoction	Orally	Shrub
Japan	Araliaceae	Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer d	Radix	Decoction	Orally	Herb
Japan	Equidae	Equus asinus L. d	Skin	Decoction	Orally
Japan	Fabaceae	Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch. d	Root	Decoction	Orally	Herb
Japan	Lauraceae	Cinnamomum cassia (L.) J. Presl d	Bark	Decoction	Orally	Tree
Japan	Liliaceae	Ophiopogon japonicus (Linn. f.) Ker-GawL. d	Tuber	Decoction	Orally	Herb
Japan	Ranunculaceae	Paeonia lactiflora Pall. d	Root	Decoction	Orally	Herb
Japan	Ranunculaceae	Paeonia suffruticosa Andr. d	Bark	Decoction	Orally	Herb
Japan	Rutaceae	Tetradium ruticarpum (A. Jussieu) T. G. Hartley d	Fruit	Decoction	Orally	Shrub, Tree
Japan	Zingiberaceae	Zingiber officinale Roscoe d	Rhizome	Decoction	Orally	Herb
Malaysia	Zingiberaceae	Curcuma longa L.	—	—	—	Herb	Ling and Ng (1998)
Malaysia	Zingiberaceae	Curcuma xanthorrhiza D. Dietr.	—	—	—	Herb
Pakistan	Amaranthaceae	Amaranthus spinosus L.	Whole plant	Decoction	Orally	Herb	Tariq et al. (2018)
Pakistan	Asphodelaceae	Aloe barbadensis Mill.	Leaf	Powder + milk	Orally	Herb
Pakistan	Bereridaceae	Berberis lycium Royle.	Root	Infusion	—	Shrub
Pakistan	Bombacaceae	Bombax ceiba L.	Root,gum,flower	Powder + milk	Orally	Tree
Pakistan	Lamiaceae	Ajuga parviflora Benth.	Leaf, Root	Powder + water	Orally	Herb
Pakistan	Ulmaceae	Celtis australis L.	Fruit, Bark	Decoction + ghee	Orally	Tree
Pakistan	Urticaceae	Urtica dioica L.	Whole plant	Powder + water	Orally	Herb

Note:

, Kamishoyosan (Chinese name, Jia wei xiao yao san).

, Keishibukuryogan (Chinese name, Gui zhi fu ling wan).

, Tokishakuyakusan (Chinese name, Dang gui shao yao san).

, Unkeito (Chinese name, Wen jing tang).

Traditional Persian medicine (TPM), as a holistic system of medicine and based on temperament, has been used in Iran since thousands of years ago (Hosseinkhani et al., 2021). Temperament is made of action and reaction of four pivotal elements (fire, air, water, and soil) and creates different characteristics in living things. In TPM, temperament has been classified in different types: hot, cold, wet, and dry (Akhtari et al., 2020). Amenorrhea, oligomenorrhea, and hypomenorrhea are defined as “Ehtebas Tams” in TPM. From TPM viewpoint, anatomical and functional disorders (mal-temperaments) system are the main causes of oligomenorrhea and amenorrhea (Rahimi and Ardekani, 2013). The most prevalent temperaments of plants used to treat amenorrhea in Iranian medicine were warm and dry. Foeniculum vulgare Mill., Mentha longifolia (L.) L., Paeonia lactiflora Pall., Sesamum indicum L., and Vitex agnus-castus L. are the five most effective and documented herbs for treating amenorrhea (Moini Jazani et al., 2018).

In South Africa, plants belonging to 15 families are used for the treatment of amenorrhea. The most common plant families reported are the Fabaceae (five species) and Asteraceae (two species). Asparagus buchananii Baker is burnt and its smoke is directed into the vagina. Boscia foetida Schinz shows potential toxicity with hemorrhagic diarrhea. Powdered plant material is also applied to underwear: Albizia brevifolia Schinz, Brackenridgea zanguebarica Oliver, and Pterocarpus angolensis DC. are used for all for the treatment of amenorrhea (Steenkamp, 2003). The roots of Rhoicissus digitata (L. f.) Gilg and M. Brandt are chopped and mixed with the same number of chopped roots of Bridelia cathartica G. Bertol. and Peltophorum africanum Sond. Four handfuls of the mixed plant material are boiled in 5 L of water for 1 h in a pot with a lid on. Half a cup of the decoction is taken orally two to three times a day (depending on one’s preference). This decoction treats amenorrhea (de Wet and Ngubane, 2014).

Herbs used in other countries and regions to treat amenorrhea are listed in Table 4. See the Supplementary Material “Amenorrhea” for other specific contents.

This part contains a total of 53 families and 99 species of plants from nine countries and regions used for the treatment of amenorrhea. Ranunculaceae family is the most commonly used among these species and some plants have records of treating amenorrhea in two countries: women use leaves of Aloe barbadensis Mill. in both India and Pakistan, but the dosage forms are different. Indian women make a gel for usage, while Pakistani women use its powder and milk. The whole plant of Amaranthus spinosus L. is made into a decoction in Pakistan and its roots are squeezed into a juice in Bangladesh.

3.4 Ethnic Herbal Medicine Used for Menstrual Disorders

MDs are some of the most common conditions to affect reproductive-aged women globally. They include abnormal menstrual cycle length, hypomenorrhea, and menorrhagia (Harlow et al., 2000). An epidemiological survey found that 27.2% of women suffered from MDs in five European countries (Fraser et al., 2015). Although estrogen therapy is beneficial in patients with MDs, its side effects such as nausea and vomiting had led to significant distress (Wang et al., 2020).

In America, Artemisia dracunculus L. (tarragon), whose whole plants are used for treating irregular menstruation by the Indians of the Missouri River Region, has long been used in traditional Asian medicine such as Myanmar while known as a spice species in Asia, Europe and the America (Ekiert et al., 2021). Native Americans use leaves of Artemisia vulgaris L. to treat irregular menstruation, while Indians, Italians and Vietnamese use it to treat dysmenorrhea (Schmid and Moerman, 1998).

The traditional Chinese medication experience and modern application of herbal medicine in treating MDs have enhanced people’s recognition of its importance and necessity. Dried products of herbal medicine are often used in traditional Chinese medicine which is convenient for transportation and storage. Rehmannia glutinosa (Rehjnannia glutinosa Libosch.) and its processed products play an important role in the treatment of irregular menstruation. Modern research shows (Zhang et al., 2008) that Chinese Rehmanniae Radix can prevent an inducement of the peripheral microcirculation of various chronic diseases through the improvement of hemorheology. Chinses angelica (Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels) is a Chinese herbal medicine traditionally used for replenishing blood. Studies have shown that Angelica sinensis polysaccharide significantly reduced the apoptosis rate of platelets and had an anti-apoptosis effect on cryopreserved platelet (Nai et al., 2021).

In India, there are 73 species of plants used to treat MDs (Jadhav and Bhutani, 2005; Vidyasagar and Prashantkumar, 2007; Bhatia et al., 2015; Das et al., 2015). The major used family being Fabaceae; its leaves and roots are used often. Juice is the most frequently used method of administration, and oral administration is the most commonly used route of administration.

In Iran, a review suggests that the average prevalence of MDs is substantial (Omani Samani et al., 2018). Tansaz et al. (2015) summarized a variety of herbal medicines used for treating menorrhagia in Iran, including two forms, namely simple medicines and compound medicines. Plantain (Plantago asiatica L.) is one of the best medicinal plants used for menorrhagia treatment that is used by some of the traditional Iranian women. This plant is used either orally or vaginally. The other plant that is used frequently by Iranian traditional women is Punica granatum L., which grows in the wild in Iran, and it can be used either orally or topically. In the medical approach, traditional Iranian medicine physicians apply multiple drug dosage forms, such as oral, vaginal suppository, sitz bath, lotion, cleansing, and balm. These varieties increase a physician’s options in the management of menorrhagia and improve the compliance of patients.

In South Africa, Fabaceae is the most common family that appears in the treatment of menorrhagia among 31 plants (Steenkamp, 2003). Adenia gummifera (Harv.) Harms (Passifloraceae) and Xylopia longipetala De Wild. and T. Durand. (Annonaceae) are used as vaginal douches.

In Thailand, 25 species of plants are used to treat MDs (Sitthithawor et al., 2019). Zingiberaceae is the prominent family of species, while the primary part used is rhizome and oral administration is the major route of administration.

Herbs used in other countries and regions to treat MDs are listed in Table 5. See the Supplementary Material “Menstrual disorders” for other specific contents.

TABLE 5

Herbal medicine for treating menstrual disorders.

Country/Region	Diseases	Family	Scientific name	Used part	Application	Preparation	Habit	References
America	Irregular menstruation	Adoxaceae	Viburnum lentago L.	Root	Infusion		Tree	Schmid and Moerman (1998)
America	Irregular menstruation	Apiaceae	Sanicula marilandica L.	Bulb roots	Infusion		Herb
America	Irregular menstruation	Asteraceae	Artemisia dracunculus L.	Whole Plant	Decoction	Orally	Subshrub
America	Irregular menstruation	Asteraceae	Artemisia frigida Willd.	Whole Plant	Decoction	Topically	Herb
America	Irregular menstruation	Fabaceae	Tephrosia virginiana (L.) Pers.	Whole Plant	Decoction	Topically	Herb
America	Irregular menstruation	Liliaceae	Lilium canadense L.	Whole Plant	Infusion		Herb
America	Irregular menstruation	Rosaceae	Fragaria virginiana Duchesne	Whole Plant	Infusion		Herb
America	Irregular menstruation	Rosaceae	Rubus pubescens var. pubescens	Whole Plant	Infusion		Herb
America	Menorrhagia	Asteraceae	Artemisia douglasiana Besser ex Besser	Leaf	Decoction, infusion	Orally	Herb
America	Menorrhagia	Asteraceae	Artemisia vulgaris L.	Leaf	Decoction	Orally	Herb
America	Menorrhagia	Convolvulaceae	Convolvulus arvensis L.	Stem with leaves	Decoction	Orally	Herb
America	Menorrhagia	Ericaceae	Pyrola chlorantha Sw.	Whole Plant			Herb
America	Menorrhagia	Pinaceae	Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirbel) Franco	Green bark	Infusion	Orally	Tree
America	Menorrhagia	Pteridaceae	Adiantum pedatum L.	Root	Decoction, infusion	Orally	Herb
America	Menorrhagia	Ulmaceae	Ulmus americana L.	Root bark	Infusion	Orally	Tree
America	Menstrual disorders	Apiaceae	Osmorhiza occidentalis (Nutt.) Torr.	Root	Decoction		Herb
America	Menstrual disorders	Asparagaceae	Maianthemum stellatum (L.) Link	Root	Decoction		Herb
America	Menstrual disorders	Asteraceae	Artemisia ludoviciana ssp. Ludoviciana	Leaf	Infusion		Herb
America	Menstrual disorders	Caprifoliaceae	Symphoricarpos albus (L.) S.F.Blake	Branch	Infusion		Shrub
America	Menstrual disorders	Cupressaceae	Thuja occidentalis L.	Whole Plant	Infusion		Tree
Argentina	Menstrual disorders	Apiaceae	Apium graveolens L.	Leaf	Decoction	Orally	Herb	Hilgert (2001)
Argentina	Menstrual disorders	Lauraceae	Cinnamomum verum J.Presl	Whole plant	Decoction	Orally	Tree
Argentina	Menstrual disorders	Pteridaceae	Adiantopsis chlorophylla (Sw.) Fée	Whole plant	Infusion + honey	Orally	Herb
Argentina	Menstrual disorders	Pteridaceae	Adiantum poiretii Wikstr.	Whole plant	Infusion + honey	Orally	Herb
Argentina	Menstrual disorders	Ranunculaceae	Clematis haenkeana C.Presl	Whole plant	Infusion + honey	Orally	Vine
Argentina	Menstrual disorders	Rutaceae	Ruta chalepensis L.	Leaf	Infusion + honey	Orally	Herb
Argentina	Menstrual disorders, menorrhagia	Lamiaceae	Origanum vulgare L.	Whole plant	soft Drink + honey	Orally	Subshrub, Herb
Argentina	Menstrual hemorrhage	Asteraceae	Anthemis cotula L.	Whole plant	Infusion + honey	Orally	Herb
Argentina	Menstrual hemorrhage	Piperaceae	Peperomia fiebrigii C. DC.	whole plant	Infusion + Honey	Orally	Herb
Argentina	Menstrual hemorrhage	Scrophulariaceae	Agalinis fiebrigii (Diels) D’Arcy	Flower	Infusion	Orally	Shrub
Bangladesh	Menorrhagia	Fabaceae	Saraca asoca (Roxb.) De Wilde	Dark	Decoction	Orally	Tree	Kadir et al. (2014)
Bangladesh, Myanmar	Menorrhagia	Plantaginaceae	Scoparia dulcis L.	Whole plant (Bangladesh), root (Myanmar)	Pill (Bangladesh)	Orally (Bangladesh)	Herb, Subshrub
Brazil	Menstrual regulation	Asteraceae	Tagetes erecta L.	Fruit	Decoction	Orally	Herb	Bieski et al. (2015)
Brazil	Menstruation	Myrtaceae	Leptospermum scoparium J.R. Forst. and G. Forst.	—	—	—	Herb
Brazil	Menstruation	Aristolochiaceae	Aristolochia cymbifera Mart and Zucc	—	—	—	Tree
Brazil, Thailand	Menstrual disorders(Thailand), Menstrual regulation(Brazil)	Asteraceae	Artemisia sp.	Aerial part (Thailand), leaf (Brazil)	Infusion (Brazil)	—	Herb
China	Menorrhagia	Acanthaceae	Thunbergia laurifolia Lindl.	Leaf	—	—	Vine
Italy	Irregular menstrual cycle	Apiaceae	Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Fuss	Aerial part	Infusion, decoction	Orally	Herb	Motti et al. (2019)
Italy	Irregular menstrual cycle	Asteraceae	Calendula officinalis L.	Flower	Infusion	Orally	Herb
Italy	Irregular menstrual cycle	Pteridaceae	Adiantum capillus-veneris L.	Leaf	Decoction	Orally	Herb
Italy	Irregular menstrual cycle	Rosaceae	Rubus fruticosus L.	Leaf	Decoction	Orally	Vine
Italy	Irregular menstrual cycle	Rosaceae	Rubus ulmifolius Schott.	Leaf	Infusion	Orally	Vine
Italy	Irregular menstruation	Lamiaceae	Marrubium vulgare L.	Flower	Macerate	Orally	Herb
Italy	Menorrhagia	Lamiaceae	Lamium album L.	Aerial part	Decoction	Orally	Herb
Italy	Menorrhagia	Asteraceae	Bellis perennis L.	Flower	Infusion	Orally	Herb
Italy	Menorrhagia	Polygonaceae	Polygonum hydropiper L.	Whole plant	Infusion	Orally	Herb
Italy	Menorrhagia	Rosaceae	Prunus spinosa L.	Bark, Root	Decoction	Orally	Shrub
Italy	Menorrhagia	Urticaceae	Urtica dioica L.	Aerial part	Raw	Orally	Herb
Italy	Oligomenorrhea	Aceraceae	Acer campestre L.	Bark	Decoction	Orally	Tree
Italy	Oligomenorrhea	Sapindaceae	Acer opalus subsp. obtusatum (Waldst. and Kit. ex Willd.) Gams	Bark	Decoction	Orally	Tree
Italy, Korea	Irregular menstrual cycle, menorrhagia(Italy), menstrual disorders(Korea)	Brassicaceae	Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik.	Aerial part, whole plant(Italy),sprout(Korea)	Raw, decoction, infusion	Topically, Orally	Herb
Italy, Pakistan	Menorrhagia (Italy), Menstrual disorder(Pakistan)	Asteraceae	Achillea millefolium L.	Leaf, flower(Italy), Whole plant(Pakistan)	Decoction, infusion,tincture(Italy)	Orally (Italy)	Herb
Korea	Irregular menstruation	Asclepiadaceae	Cynanchum wilfordii (Maxim.) Hemsl.	Root	Brewing	Orally	Vine	Kim et al. (2006), Kim and Song (2011)
Korea	Irregular menstruation	Asteraceae	Leonurus japonicus Houtt.	Leaf	Infusion	Orally	Herb
Korea	Irregular Menstruation	Celastraceae	Celastrus orbiculatus Thunb.	Fruit	Powder, Brewing	Orally	Shrub
Korea	Irregular Menstruation	Malvaceae	Althaea rosea (Linn.) Cavan.	Root	Infusion, Decoction	Orally	Herb
Korea	Irregular Menstruation	Paeoniaceae	Paeonia lactiflora Pall.	Root	Decoction	Orally	Herb
Korea	Irregular Menstruation	Plantaginaceae	Plantago asiatica L.	Root	Decoction	Orally	Herb
Korea	Irregular Menstruation	Rosaceae	Sanguisorba officinalis L.	Root	Infusion	Orally	Herb
Korea	Menstrual disorder	Asteraceae	Artemisia selengensis Turcz. ex Bess	Leaf, root	—	—	Herb
Korea	Menstrual disorder	Brassicaceae	Cardamine flexuosa With.	Root	—	—	Herb
Korea	Menstrual disorder, menstrual pain	Asteraceae	Artemisia princeps Pamp. var. orientalis (Pampan.) Hara	Leaf	—	—	Herb
Malay Peninsula	Irregular menstruation	Clusiaceae	Garcinia mangostana L.	root	Decoction	Orally	Tree	Ling and Ng (1998)
Malaysia	Abnormal menstruation	Asteraceae	Artemisia argyi Levl. et Vant.	Leaf	—	—	Herb
Malaysia	Emmenagogue	Bromeliaceae	Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.	—	—	—	Herb
Malaysia	Emmenagogue	Poaceae/Gramineae	Cymbopogon nardus (L.) Rendle	—	—	—	Herb
Malaysia	Emmenagogue	Poaceae/Gramineae	Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf	Stem	—	—	Herb
Malaysia	Emmenagogue	Zingiberaceae	Curcuma xanthorrhiza D.Dietr.	—	—	—	Herb
Malaysia	Irregular menstruation	Zingiberaceae	Curcuma longa L.	—	—	—	Herb
Malaysia	Menstrual Disorders (MDs)	Lamiaceae	Leonurus artemisia (Laur.) S. Y. Hu F	Aerial part	—	—	Herb
Malaysia	Menstrual pains	Phyllanthaceae	Antidesma velutinosum Blume	Decoction	—	—	Shrub, tree
Malaysia	Oligomenorrhoea	Arecaceae/Palmae	Areca catechu L.	-	—	—	Tree
Malaysia, Myanmar	Emmenagogue (Malaysia), regulate menstruation(Myanmar)	Caricaceae	Carica papaya L.	Root (Myanmar)	—	—	Tree
Malaysia, Myanmar	Emmenagogue, oligomenorrhoea	Rubiaceae	Morinda citrifolia L.	Leaf, Fruit(Myanmar)	—	—	Shrub, Tree
Malaysia, Upper Amazon region	Emmenagogue (Malaysia), Regulate menstruation	Myrtaceae	Psidium guajava L.	Flower (Upper Amazon region)	—	—	Shrub, Tree	DeFilipps and Krupnick (2018)
Myanmar	Arrested menstruation	Moringaceae	Moringa oleifera Lam.	Leaf	Root, bark with warm milk, leaf with decoction	Orally	Shrub
Myanmar	Menorrhagia, menstrual problems	Apiaceae	Daucus carota L.	Root	—	Orally	Herb
Myanmar, India	Menstrual disorders (Myanmar), Amenorrhea, dysmenorrhea, emmenogogue, oligomenorrhoea, (India)	Xanthorrhoeaceae	Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f.	Whole plant, pulp, root, leaf (India)	Juice (India)	Orally (India)	Herb
Myanmar, India	Oligomenorrhoea	Aristolochiaceae	Aristolochia indica L.	Leaf, root	Powder + water (India)	Orally (India)	Herb
Myanmar, Thailand	Menstrual disorders	Myristicaceae	Myristica fragrans Houtt.	Aril of fruit and seed (Thailand)	—	—	Tree
Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam	Emmenagogue (Thailand), menorrhagia (Myanmar), menstrual disorders (Vietnam)	Apocynaceae	Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don	Root (Thailand, Vietnam), leaf (Myanmar)	Aqueous extract (Myanmar)	Orally (Myanmar)	Tree
Nepal	Menstrual problems	Abaceae	Arisaema concinnum Schott	Rhizome	Decoction	Orally	Herb	Malla et al. (2015)
Nepal	Menstrual problems	Anacardiaceae	Rhus javanica L.	Fruit	Powder	Orally	Tree
Nepal	Menstrual problems	Cucurbitaceae	Solena amplexicaulis (Lam.) Gandhi.	Root	Decoction	Orally	Herb
Nepal	Menstrual problems	Ericaeae	Rhododendron arboreum Sm.	Petals	Raw	Orally	Tree
Nepal	Menstrual problems	Fabaceae	Indigofera bracteata Grah. ex Baker	Leaf	Juice	Orally	Shrub
Nepal	Menstrual problems	Hypericaceae	Hypericum cordifolium Choisy in DC.	Whole plant	Extract	Orally	Shrub
Nepal	Menstrual problems	Liliaceae	Paris polyphylla Sm.	Rhizome	Juice	Orally	Herb
Nepal	Menstrual problems	Polygonaceae	Rheum australe D. Don.	Rhizome	Juice	Orally	Herb
Nepal	Menstrual problems	Rhamnaceae	Zizyphus mauritiana Lam.	Root	Decoction	Orally	Tree
Nepal	Menstrual problems	Rosaceae	Fragaria nubicola Lindley ex Lacaita.	Whole plant	Juice	Orally	Herb
Nepal	Menstrual problems	Rutaceae	Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack.	Leaf	Decoction	Orally	Shrub
Nepal	Menstrual problems	Saxifragaceae	Astilbe rivularis Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don.	Rhizome	Juice	Orally	Shrub
Nepal	Menstrual problems	Scrophulariaceae	Hemiphragma heterophyllum Wall.	Whole plant	Juice	Orally	Herb
Pakistan	Excessive menstruation	Amaranthaceae	Amaranthus viridis L.	Whole plant, root	—	Topically	Herb	Aziz et al. (2018), Tariq et al. (2018)
Pakistan	Irregular menstruation	Asteraceae	Calendula arvensis M. Bieb.	Flower	Infusion	—	Herb
Pakistan	Irregular menstruation	Geraniaceae	Geranium wallichianum D. Don ex Sweet.	Root	Powder + milk	—	Herb
Pakistan	Irregular menstruation	Hypericaceae	Hypericum perforatum L.	Fruit, shoot	Infusion	—	Herb
Pakistan	Irregular menstruation	Rosaceae	Prunus domestica L.	Fruit	—	Orally	Tree
Pakistan	Irregular menstruation, oligomenorrhea	Apiaceae	Foeniculum vulgare Mill.	Leaf, fruit (Irregular menstruation), whole plant (oligoenorrhea)	Orally (Irregular menstruation)	Orally (Irregular menstruation)	Herb
Pakistan	Menorrhagia	Poaceae/Gramineae	Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf	Leaf	—	—	Herb
Pakistan	Menstrual disorder	Anacardiaceae	Schinus molle L.	Bark, leaf, fruit	—	—	Tree
Pakistan	Oligomenorrhea	Apiaceae	Trachyspermum triradiatum Wolff	Seed	—	—	Herb
Pakistan	Oligomenorrhea	Fabaceae	Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile	Bark	—	Topically	Tree
Pakistan	Regulate the menses	Apiaceae	Ammi visnaga (L.) Lam.	Fruit	Infusion	—	Herb
Pakistan	Regulate the menses	Apiaceae	Bupleurum falcatum L.	Whole plant	Decoction	Orally	Herb
Pakistan	Regulate the menses	Apiaceae	Heracleum candicans Wall. ex DC.	Root	Powder	—	Herb
Pakistan	Stimulate menstrual flow	Asteraceae	Carthamus oxycantha M.Bieb.	Flower, seed	—	—	Herb
Pakistan	Stimulate menstruation	Asteraceae	Cichorium intybus L.	Leaf, root	Decoction	—	Herb
Pakistan	Irregular menstruation	Zingiberaceae	Zingiber officinale Roscoe	Root	Powder + water or milk	—	Herb
Taiwan	Irregular menstruation	Zingiberaceae	Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton.	Seed	—	—	Herb
Taiwan	stimulate menstruation	Zingiberaceae	Zingiber montanum (J. Koenig) Link ex A.Dietr.	Whole plant	—	—	Herb
Taiwan	Irregular menstruation	Zingiberaceae	Curcuma zedoaria (Christm.) Roscoe	Rhizome (Thailand)	—	—	Herb
Vietnam	Menstrual disorders	Apiaceae	Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.	Whole plant	—	—	Herb	Kurian (2012)
Vietnam	Menstrual disorders	Apocynaceae	Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br.	Bark, leaf, latex	—	—	Tree
Vietnam	Menstrual disorders	Cyperaceae	Cyperus rotundus L.	Root, Rhizome	—	—	Herb

This section contains a total of 96 families and 287 species of plants from 15 countries and regions used for the treatment of MDs. Fabaceae is very common some plants have a record in treating MDs in more than two countries. There are three ways to use Punica granatum L. to treat menorrhagia in Iran: vaginal suppository, lotion, and balm (marham). In India, its raw dried peels are used for menorrhagia. Myanmar women use their leaves and roots to make decoctions. Women in Myanmar and Thailand use garlic (Allium sativum L.) bulbs to regulate menstruation.

4 Herbal Medicine Products

The utilization of herbal medicine is increasing every year, which is reflected in the statistics of various countries. A study of participants from 23 countries reveals that 28.9% reported the use of herbal medicines in pregnancy (Kennedy et al., 2013). Approximately 35% of adults in the United States reported current use of herbal medicine (Rashrash et al., 2017). The sale of herbal medicines is growing by 20% annually and forms are the largest growth area in retail pharmacy. The sales of such products have moved from specialty stores to mainline shopping environments (Flanagan, 2001). The popularity of herbal medicine has spawned many health care industries, which have many herbal products on the market for menstrual problems. Table 6 lists some herbal products from various countries.

TABLE 6

Herbal medicine products.

Country/region	Premenstrual syndrome	Dysmenorrhea	Amenorrhea	Menstrual disorders
America	Chasteberry Extract (Vitex agnus-castus L.), Rose Otto Essential Oil, Chasteberry and Dong Quai Women’s Monthly Support Supplement		Ginger powder (Zingiber officinale Roscoe)
Australia	Vitex Agnus-Castus, Evening Primrose (Oenothera biennis L.), St John’s Wort (Hypericum perforatum L.)		Chamomile Tea (Matricaria chamomilla L.), Yarrow Tea (Achillea millefolium L.)
China	ShuerjingKeli	Yuanhu Zhitong tablet, Tongjing Wan, Tongjingbao Keli	Fuke Tongjing Wan, Extract of Rosa chinensis Jacq.	Angelica Liquid Extract, Danggui Yangxue Wan, Danggui Tiaojing Keli, Fuke Tiaojing Pian, Tiaojing Huoxue Jiaonang, Erzhi Wan
India	Aloe vitals capsules of Planet Ayurveda, Valerian tea	German Chamomile oil (Matricaria chamomilla L.), Essential oil of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.), Sweet Marjoram oil (Origanum majorana L.), Lavender oil (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.), Clary Sage oil (Salvia sclarea L.), Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.)
Iran	Saffron (Crocus sativus L.)	Chamomile tea (Matricaria chamomilla L.), Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe), Mint tea (Mentha longifolia L.)

Compound Recipes are a major feature of herbal medicine in the treatment of MD. According to the most commonly used traditional Chinese medicine compound (TCMC) in MD showed in Table 1 as an example, there are seven formulae including nonredundant 28 herbs, which totally occurs 57 times, the main herb-pairs and compatibility laws of traditional Chinese medicine prescriptions are listed in Figure 1 as a network diagram obtained by the association rule algorithm-Apriori algorithm.

FIGURE 1

Network diagram of compatibility law of Traditional Chinese Medicine.

According to the network, Paeonia lactiflora Pall. was in the central with the most relationship with other herbs; Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels., Zingiber officinale Roscoe., Cinnamomum cassia Presl., Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch., Ligusticum chuanxiong Hort., Paeonia suffruticosa Andr., Poria cocos (Schw.) Wolf., and Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz. within the second core layer, with extensive compatibility with other herbs, they are all the backbone medication of TCMC in treating MD.

Among them, according to the theory of TCMC, the Bupleurum-white peony drug pair can regulate menstruation and relieve pain and is also a frequently used drug pair for the treatment of various gynecological diseases. Ginger functions as warming menstruation and is most widely used in TCMC prescriptions for gynecological diseases. It can also be used as a “guiding herb” (which acts an ingredient added to enhance the efficacy of a dose of medicine), which is of great significance to improve the accuracy and efficacy of the medication. Licorice is commonly used in TCMC. It also plays a role in reconciling the medicinal properties and improving the taste. As such, it has a wide range of applications. Licorice can also play a role in pain relief, which is very beneficial in the relieving gynecological disease symptoms such as dysmenorrhea. Angelica is the holy medicine used in gynecology, Chuanxiong is the holy medicine used to activate blood stasis, and cinnamon functions as warming meridians, and atractylodes functions as drying dampness, invigorating the spleen, and relieving pain, which is of great significance for eliminating the cause of the disease.

As a creative contribution of CHM, the compound medicine experience of CHM has affected the traditional medical development of many countries in East Asia, and it will also provide a reference for the development of other ethnic medicines in the future.

5 Discussion and Conclusion

In this study, we screened 93 literatures on the topic of MD, among which a review “Medicinal plants used for menstrual disorders in Latin America, the Caribbean, sub-Saharan Africa, South and Southeast Asia and their uterine properties: A review” (van Andel et al., 2014) is similar on this theme, it mainly focuses on MDs and pay more attention on adverse reactions of related herbs. In our study, we systematically analyzed the herbal medicines used in countries and regions in treating different MD, compared the medication common characters and differences, and analyzed the compatibility law of classical prescriptions. As we know, our review is an unprecedented work on comprehensive analysis traditional herbs for MD globally.

Among the herbs used to treat MD, we analyzed 130 families and 571 species of plants used by women from different countries and regions. Among them, 451 are herbs, 178 are trees, 72 are shrubs, 21 are vines, five are climbers and 37 are of other types. The five main families are Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Apiaceae, Fabaceae, and Zingiberaceae, while the five frequently used plants are Zingiber officinale Roscoe. (Ginger), Ruta graveolens L. (Common rue), Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels (Angelica sinensis), Foeniculum vulgare Mill. (Fennel), and Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don (Catharanthus roseus). The general dosage of these herbs is 3–15 g.

Among them, some herbal medicines can treat three MD concurrently such as: Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels (Angelica sinensis), Foeniculum vulgare Mill Ligusticum chuanxiong Hort., Cyperus rotundus L., Spatholobus suberectus Dunn, Leonurus japonicus Houtt., Salvia miltiorrhiza Bge., Prunus persica (L.) Batsch, Rosa chinensis Jacq., Curcuma longa L. while some herbal medicines that can treat two MD concurrently such as: Ruta graveolens L., Cinnamomum cassia (L.) J.Presl, Sargentodoxa cuneata (Oliv.) Rehd. et Wils., Corydalis yanhusuo W. T.Wang, Zingiber officinale Roscoe.

The number of families and species of plants corresponding to each disease type is listed in Figure 2. Most types of herbs treat MDs, for there are different symptom categories in MDs; however, considering a single symptom, most types of herbs treat dysmenorrhea. The number of herbs in treating PMS is the least in the four categories of MD, mainly because of PMS was proposed the latest.

FIGURE 2

The number of families and species of plants corresponding to each disease type.

The number of families and species of plants corresponding to each country and region is listed in Figure 3, which shows that India has the most types of individual herbs used to treat MD. The selected literature indicted that India has more medical plant species resources and medication experience in MD, and it was similar for South Africa, Italy and Myanmar, for some literatures specifically collected and summarized herbs in treating MD in these countries or regions, but the application experience and pharmacological differences of many related plants need further research. In China, there are abundant medication experiences in treating MD, but the number of herbs was not increased indefinitely in a long application history, chiefly due to the concept of combined medication in CHM to solve many complex disease problems.

FIGURE 3

The number of families and species of plants corresponding to each country.

The usage of medicinal parts is listed in Figure 4, which presents the most commonly used parts which are root, leaf, whole plant, seed, bark, rhizome, fruit, flower, and aerial part. The usage of all the herbal medicines mentioned in the article is listed in Figure 5, which illustrates the three most commonly used preparations are decoction, infusion, and juice. Among the recorded routes of administration, 263 are oral administration and 50 are topical administration. The most commonly used type of dosage forms include decoction, infusion, juice, powder, dry, raw, paste, sitz bath, lotion, balm (Marham), and vaginal suppository. The most frequently used ingredients to match the dosage form are honey, milk, sugar, and other excipients, which may improve the taste of herbal medicines, moisturize the intestines and improve patient compliance for usage.

FIGURE 4

Corresponding proportion of plant medicinal parts.

FIGURE 5

Proportion of plant dosage forms: Others refer to dosage forms that appear only once.

Among the recorded plants, many have culinary use in the population, such as Coriandrum sativum L. (Coriander Herb), Cuminum cyminum L. (Cumin), Crocus sativus L. (Saffron), Mentha pulegium L. (Pennyroyal), Mentha x piperita L. (Peppermint), Cinnamomum verum J. Presl (Ceylon cinnamon), Zingiber officinale Roscoe (Ginger), Allium sativum L. (Garlic), Foeniculum vulgare Mill. (Fennel), Capsella bursa-pastoris (Linn.) Medic. (Shepherd’s purse), Raphanus sativus L. (Radish), and Apium graveolens L. (Celery). Edible herbs are used in a wide range of countries or regions or have multiple effects on MD. This may mean that the edibility of herbal medicine has expanded its promotion. As such, it can be spread and applied in many countries and regions.

Some herbs have the same purpose in different countries. For example, ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) is used to treat dysmenorrhea in India, Iran, and Malaysia; and the coriander herb (Coriandrum sativum L.) can treat menorrhagia in both India and Iran. Some herbs have different uses in different countries, such as Catharanthus roseus (Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don) is used to treat dysmenorrhea in India, amenorrhea in Myanmar, MDs in Vietnam, and as an emmenagogue in Thailand. East Asia, Pakistan, Malaysia, and some other places have recorded using fresh herbs. This may be because local therapists believe that fresh herbs are more effective (Pharmacopoeia Commission, 2020).

The application of some drugs is peculiar to this region. For example, Indian women use Vitex negundo L. to treat dysmenorrhea and amenorrhea, while Iranian women often use pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) to treat menorrhagia. Chinese women usually use roots of Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels. for curing various MDs. The whole plant of Cirsium souliei (Franch.) Mattf. is applied to treat menorrhagia and the aerial part of Lagotis brevituba Maxim is used for menstrual regulation by Tibetan women (Zhu et al., 2017). Mongols frequently apply the aerial part of Panzeria alaschanica Kupr. to treat dysmenorrhea (Lei et al., 2017). As a traditional medicine of Uygur nationality, aerial part of Saussurea involucrata (Kar. et Kir.) Sch. -Bip is used for the treatment of excessive leucorrhea, but in CHM, it is used for irregular menstruation.

The sources of information on women’s use of plants come from herbal works, multi-media, the internet, medical education, ancestral medical inheritance, doctor-patient communication, neighborhood introduction, and self-exploration. For example, the elder Red-headed Yao women in China play an important role in the spread and utility of medicinal plants in treating gynecological diseases to young women. They can classify medicinal plants, and remember their functions and methods of disease treatment transferred to them from their previous generation.

East Asia has a long-standing habit of using herbal medicines, while in Western countries, herbal medicines have always been used as complementary and alternative treatments. In CHM, the specific details of the menstrual cycle (duration, volume, the appearance of flow, etc.) are not only the surface phenomena, which hint at the underlying causes of MD such as the dysfunction of the internal organs, disharmony of Qi, Blood and Body Fluids, imbalance of the Ren and Du meridians, and the irregularity of Kidney Essence, but symptomatic and causal treatment is required based on these phenomena (Zhou and Qu, 2009). As mentioned above, affected by the culture of Chinese medicine, Japan and South Korea have similar concepts in the treatment of MD, which is also reflected in their medication.

In conclusion, this study compares and summarizes the use of herbal medicines by women in different countries and regions globally. We hope to enlighten people working in these areas, and provide some insight on women’s medication.