Genomic variation reveals demographic history and biological adaptation of the ancient relictual, lotus (Nelumbo Adans).

Lotus (Nelumbo Adans.), a relict plant, is the testimony of long-term sustained ecological success, but the underlying genetic changes related to its survival strategy remains unclear. Here, we assembled the high-quality lotus genome, investigated genome variation of lotus mutation accumulation (MA) lines and reconstructed the demographic history of wild Asian lotus, respectively. We identified and validated 43 base substitutions fixed in MA lines, implying a spontaneous mutation rate of 1.4 × 10-9 base/generation in lotus shoot stem cells. The past history of lotus revealed that the ancestors of lotus in eastern and southern Asia could be traced back ~20 million years ago (Mya) and experienced twice significant bottlenecks and population splits. We further identified the selected genes among three lotus groups in different habitats, suggesting that 453 genes between tropical and temperate group and 410 genes between two subgroups from Northeastern China and the Yangtze River - Yellow River Basin might play important roles in natural selection in lotus's adaptation and resilience. Our findings not only improve an understanding of the lotus evolutionary history and the genetic basis of its survival advantages, but also provide valuable data for addressing various questions in evolution and protection for the relict plants.