Sitagliptin protects renal glomerular endothelial cells against high glucose-induced dysfunction and injury.

Sitagliptin is a well-established anti-diabetic drug that also exerts protective effects on diabetic complications. Previous work reveals that sitagliptin has a protective effect on diabetic nephropathy (DN). Vascular impairment frequently occurs in diabetic renal complications. Here, we evaluated the protective function of sitagliptin in human renal glomerular endothelial cells (HrGECs) under high glucose (HG) conditions. Expressions of the pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and interleukin-8 (IL-8) were assessed using real-time PCR and ELISA. Endothelial cells permeability was assayed using the fluorescein isothiocyanate dextran (FITC-dextran) and trans-endothelial electrical resistance (TEER) assay. The results show that sitagliptin mitigated HG-induced oxidative stress in HrGECs with decreased levels of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS), Malondialdehyde (MDA), and 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-OHdG). Sitagliptin inhibited HG-induced production of pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and interleukin-8 (IL-8) in HrGECs. It also ameliorated HG-induced aggravation of HrGECs permeability and reduction of the tight junction component claudin-5. Moreover, kruppel Like Factor 6 (KLF6) mediated the protective effects of sitagliptin on endothelial monolayer permeability against HG. Collectively, sitagliptin reversed the HG-induced oxidative stress, inflammation, and increased permeability in HrGECs via regulating KLF6. This study suggests that sitagliptin might be implicated as an effective strategy for preventing diabetic renal injuries in the future.

Introduction

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is one of the diabetes-mediated pathological events that increase the risk of renal tissue destruction [1]. DN often results in life-threatening morbidity and end-stage renal disease for diabetic patients, leading to healthcare and financial burdens for society [2]. The phenomenon implies that it is an urgent biomedicine issue to reduce the incidence and morbidity of DN. It is well known that renal glomerular endothelial cells (rGECs) dysfunction contributes to DN [3]. As the first barrier of the glomerular filtration membrane, the important inherent cells of the glomerulus, rGECs, are more easily influenced by proteins, lipids, and glucose [4]. The diabetic condition or hyperglycemia induces oxidative stress, inflammatory states, metabolic disorders, as well as profibrotic reactions, which ultimately lead to glomerulosclerosis [5]. Based on this, targeting the modifications of rGECs in diabetic environments will aid the development of new drugs for DN.

Sitagliptin (Figure 1(a)) is a well-established anti-diabetic drug that is used to manage type 2 diabetes (T2D) patients [6]. In addition, it was found to have protective effects on diabetic complications, including diabetic retinopathy, neuropathy, diabetic cardiovascular disease, and kidney disease. Sitagliptin ameliorates inflammation-triggered retinal endothelial cells dysfunction with improved permeability, enhanced migration, and capillary morphogenesis [7]. It prevents blood-retinal barrier (BRB) breakdown and inhibits the inflammatory state and neuron apoptosis in the retinae of diabetic rats [8]. Sitagliptin improves cardiometabolic risk factors and prevents cardiovascular events in patients with T2D [9,10]. It improves renal function in DN rats by regulating the oxidative status via modulating the expression of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) [11], it attenuates the progression of DN in rats with T2DM via suppressing TGF-β1/Smad-mediated renal fibrosis, and protects rat mesangial cells (MCs) from high glucose (HG) induction. The therapeutic effect of sitagliptin in T2DM goes beyond glycemic control, and its beneficial effect on the kidney has been recognized. At the cellular level, sitagliptin shows robust antiapoptotic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antifibrotic properties [12]. The kidneys are susceptible to alterations in blood flow, and we hypothesized that sitagliptin may have a regulatory role in renal vascular function. In this study, we investigated the effects of sitagliptin on high glucose-induced renal endothelial injury.

Figure 1.

The cytotoxicity of Sitagliptin in human renal glomerular endothelial cells (HrGECs). Cells were stimulated with Sitagliptin at the concentrations of 0, 7.5, 15, 75, 150, 750, 1500 nM for 24 hours. (a) Molecular structure of Sitagliptin; (b) Cell viability was measured using MTT assay (*, **P < 0.05, 0.01 vs. vehicle group).

Materials and methods

Cell culture, treatment, and transfection

Human renal Glomerular endothelial cells (HrGECs; ScienCell, San Diego, USA) were cultured in DMEM supplemented with 10% FBS, 5.6 mM glucose, 1% penicillin/streptomycin, 1% amphotericin B, and 2 mM L-glutamine. The treatment reagents were from a commercial source. Sitagliptin (#SML3205) and glucose (#G5767) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, USA). For cytotoxicity assessment, HrGECs were stimulated with sitagliptin at the concentrations of 0, 7.5, 15, 75, 150, 750, 1500 nM for 24 hours. Other tests were conducted with high glucose (30 mM) with or without sitagliptin (75, 150 nM) for 24 hours.

For the transfection experiment, HrGECs were introduced with lentivirus carrying KLF6 shRNA (LV-shKLF6) or lentivirus carrying control shRNA (LV-shNC). Both KLF6 and scramble lentivirus were obtained from the Applied Biological Materials Inc. (Richmond, Canada). KLF6 interference efficiency was examined three days after infection using Western blot. To establish an in vitro DN model, HrGECs were exposed to high glucose (HG; 30 mM).

MTT assay

HrGECs were exposed to indicated reagents, and then MTT assay was employed to measure the cell viability. After incubating with MTT solution for 4 hours and dissolving with DMSO, the absorbance was assessed at 570 nm.

Measurement of MDA

The MDA content in HrGECs was measured colorimetrically using a commercial assay kit (Sangon Biotech, Shanghai, China). The absorbance at 532 nm was recorded. The data were presented as fold change relative to control.

ELISA

Measurement of 8-Hydroxy-desoxyguanosine (8-OHDG), IL-1β, and IL-8 in HrGECs was conducted using the commercial ELISA kits (Cusabio, MD, USA) following the manufacturer’s instructions.

Measurement of mitochondrial ROS

To examine mitochondrial ROS levels, HrGECs were loaded with a mitochondrial superoxide indicator MitoSOX Red (5 μM; Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) for 10 minutes at 37°C. The cells were live-imaged immediately to determine MitoSOX Red fluorescent intensity at 510 nm excitation and 580 nm emission. The relative amount of ROS was presented as fold change relative to control.

Real-time (RT)-PCR

RNA extracted from HrGECs using the TRIzol reagent was reverse-transcribed into cDNA using the PrimeScript reverse transcription kit (TaKaRa, China). Then, the RT-PCR was performed to detect the mRNA levels of IL-1β and IL-8 using SYBR green gene expression assay (TaKaRa). Finally, the relative levels of target genes were determined using the 2−ΔΔCt analysis method [13].

Endothelial cells permeability assay

Fluorescein isothiocyanate dextran (FITC-dextran) was used to assess the permeability of HrGECs as described previously [14]. HrGECs were plated in a porous upper chamber of 24-well Transwell plates (Corning, NY, USA). After the indicated treatments, 200 μl FITC-dextran (1 mg/ml) was added to the upper inserts and incubated for two hours. Finally, 100 μl medium from the lower chamber was collected for the determination of fluorescence intensity using Multimode Microplate Reader (BioTeck, USA).

Trans-endothelial electrical resistance (TEER) assay

HrGECs were plated in a porous upper chamber of 24-well Transwell plates (Corning, NY, USA). TEER level was detected using a Millicell Electrical Resistance System (Millipore, Billerica, MA, USA) as previously described [15]. The resulting data for the TEER level were obtained and presented in Ω.cm2.

Western blot

Total proteins from HrGECs were denatured by 12% SDS-PAGE and transferred onto PVDF membranes. Briefly, the membranes were incubated with the anti-Claudin-5, anti-KLF6, or anti-β-actin (1:500; Abcam, Cambridge, MA, USA), and incubated with secondary antibodies (1:5000; Abcam). Finally, the membranes were exposed to a chemiluminescence kit to detect protein bands, which were finally quantified using ImageJ software.

Statistical analysis

Data were analyzed using GraphPad Prism 6 software with the one-way ANOVA. Results were presented as mean ± SEM. P < 0.05 was considered significantly different.

Results

In the present study, we performed a dose-responsive test of sitagliptin in cultured human renal glomerular endothelial cells (HrGECs). By defining the maximally tolerated two doses (75 and 150 nM) of sitagliptin, we tested its beneficial effect in the context of a high glucose (HG) challenge. The results show that sitagliptin mitigated HG-induced oxidative stress and pro-inflammatory cytokines production. By performing endothelial function assays, we found that sitagliptin protected against HG-induced hyper-permeability and the reduction of TEER. Notably, our results show that sitagliptin mitigated the HG-caused reduction of the tight junction component claudin-5. Mechanistically, we found that the transcriptional factor KLF6 is involved in the protective effects of sitagliptin.

The cytotoxicity of sitagliptin in HrGECs

HrGECs were stimulated with sitagliptin (0, 7.5, 15, 75, 150, 750, 1500 nM) for 24 h. The MTT assay showed that cell viability was decreased by 17% when treated with 1500 nM sitagliptin (Figure 1(b)). However, no differences were observed at the concentrations of 7.5, 15, 75, 150, and 750 nM.

Sitagliptin mitigated HG-induced oxidative stress in HrGECs

Next, we compared the levels of oxidative indicators including MDA, 8-OHdG, and mitochondrial ROS in HrGECs following different treatments. HG stimulation significantly increased the MDA level by 2.8-fold, which was attenuated by 75 and 150 nM sitagliptin (Figure 2(a)). Administration of HG increased the 8-OHdG level with a 3.3-fold change, while sitagliptin (75 and 150 nM) suppressed it by 33.3% and 48.5%, respectively (Figure 2(b)). In addition, the increased level of mitochondrial ROS (3.5-fold) in HG-treated HrGECs was mitigated by 75 and 150 nM sitagliptin (Figure 2(c)).

Figure 2.

Sitagliptin mitigates high glucose-induced oxidative stress in HrGECs. Cells were stimulated with high glucose (30 mM) with or without Sitagliptin (75, 150 nM) for 24 hours. (a) The levels of MDA; (b) The levels of 8-OHdG; (c) The levels of mitochondrial ROS (***P < 0.005 vs. vehicle group; #, ##P < 0.05, 0.01 vs. high glucose group).

Sitagliptin inhibited HG-induced production of pro-inflammatory cytokines in HrGECs

Following exposure to HG conditions, the mRNA levels of IL-1β and IL-8 were dramatically elevated by 2.6- and 3.2-fold, respectively. Administration of sitagliptin (75 and 150 nM) attenuated these HG-caused alternations of IL-1β and IL-8 mRNA levels in HrGECs (Figure 3(a,b)). ELISA confirmed that the HG-induced increased secretion levels of IL-1β (2.6-fold) and IL-8 (3.1-fold) were attenuated by 75 and 150 nM sitagliptin (Figure 3(c,d)).

Figure 3.

Sitagliptin inhibited high glucose-induced expression and secretions of pro-inflammatory cytokines in HrGECs. (a) mRNA of IL-1β; (b) mRNA of IL-8; (c) Secretion of IL-1β; (d) Secretions of IL-8 (***, P < 0.005 vs. vehicle group; #, ##P < 0.05, 0.01 vs. high glucose group).

Sitagliptin ameliorated HG-induced aggravation of endothelial monolayer permeability in HrGECs

The effect of sitagliptin on endothelial permeability was measured using FITC-dextran permeation. As indicated in Figure 4, endothelial permeability in HG-induced HrGECs was markedly increased by 5.3-fold. However, 35.8% and 54.5% reduction in endothelial permeability were respectively observed in HrGECs treated with 75 or 150 nM sitagliptin.

Figure 4.

Sitagliptin ameliorated high glucose-induced aggravation of endothelial monolayer permeability in HrGECs. Endothelial permeability was measured using FITC-dextran permeation (***, P < 0.005 vs. vehicle group; #, ##P < 0.05, 0.01 vs. high glucose group).

Sitagliptin restored HG-induced reduction of TEER in HrGECs

After incubation under HG conditions, the TEER level (123.6 ± 15.6 Ωcm2) was significantly lower than that of the control group (123.6 ± 15.6 Ωcm2). It was then markedly elevated by 1.3- and 1.5-fold after treatment with 75 and 150 nM sitagliptin (Figure 5).

Figure 5.

Sitagliptin restored high glucose-induced reduction of the trans-endothelial electrical resistance (TEER) in HrGECs. The levels of TEER were measured (***, P < 0.005 vs. vehicle group; #, ##P < 0.05, 0.01 vs. high glucose group).

Sitagliptin restored HG-induced reduction of claudin-5 in HrGECs

Compared with the control group, HG-induced HrGECs exhibited a 47% reduction in the mRNA level of claudin-5, while sitagliptin treatment (75, 150 nM) caused a 1.5- and 1.8-fold increase in claudin-5 mRNA in the HG-induced HrGECs (Figure 6(a)). Meanwhile, Western blot confirmed that the decreased claudin-5 protein level (42% reduction) in HG-induced HrGECs was increased by 1.4- and 1.6-fold in sitagliptin- (75, 150 nM) treated HrGECs (Figure 6(b)).

Figure 6.

Sitagliptin restored high glucose-induced reduction of Claudin-5 in HrGECs. (a) mRNA of Claudin-5; (b) Protein levels of Claudin-5 (***P < 0.005 vs. vehicle group; #, ##P < 0.05, 0.01 vs. high glucose group).

Sitagliptin prevented HG-induced reduction of KLF6 in HrGECs

There was a significant decrease in the mRNA level of KLF6 (45%) after HG induction. Compared with HG-induced HrGECs, sitagliptin treatment (75, 150 nM) elevated the decrease in KLF6 mRNA by 1.4- and 1.7-fold, respectively (Figure 7(a)). Western blot showed that the protein level of KLF6 was decreased by 47%, whereas sitagliptin (75, 150 nM) caused a 1.4- and 1.7-fold increase of the KLF6 protein level, respectively (Figure 7(b)).

Figure 7.

Sitagliptin prevented high glucose-induced reduction of KLF6 in HrGECs. (a) mRNA of KLF6; (b) Protein levels of KLF6 (***, P < 0.005 vs. vehicle group; #, ##, P < 0.05, 0.01 vs. high glucose group).

Silencing of KLF6 abolished the protective effects of sitagliptin in endothelial monolayer permeability against HG

Next, HrGECs were transduced with LV-shKLF6 to downregulate the expression of KLF6, which was confirmed by Western blot (Figure 8(a)). The sitagliptin-caused increase in Claudin-5 mRNA was reversed by LV-shKLF6 transduction (Figure 8(b)). As shown in Figure 8(c), the silencing of KLF6 caused a remarkable increase in endothelial permeability (24.6 ± 2.91 FU) compared with sitagliptin-treated HrGECs (49.3 ± 5.42 FU). Additionally, KLF6 knockdown resulted in a significant decrease (31%) in the TEER level (Figure 8(d)).

Figure 8.

Silencing of KLF6 abolished the protective effects of Sitagliptin in endothelial monolayer permeability against high-glucose. Cells were transduced with lentiviral KLF6 shRNA, followed by stimulation with high glucose (30 mM) with or without Sitagliptin (150 nM) for 24 hours. (a) Western blot analysis revealed successful knockdown of KLF6; (b) mRNA of Claudin-5; (c) Endothelial permeability; (d) The levels of TEER were measured (***P < 0.005 vs. vehicle group; ##P < 0.01 vs. high glucose group; $$$P < 0.005 vs. high glucose+Sitagliptin group).

Discussion

In diabetic conditions, hyperglycemia or glucose by-products cause renal endothelial toxicity, as evidenced by changes in growth factors synthesis and ROS production, induction of oxidative stress and inflammation, and regulation of apoptosis in rGECs [14]. Increased intracellular glucose leads to the generation of ROS, which triggers oxidative stress, inflammatory injury, and activation of various signaling pathways, thereby mediating the apoptosis of endothelial cells [15]. Besides, glucose-related endotheliotoxins notably increase the permeability of rGECs, alter endothelial glycocalyx, and induce cell apoptosis [14]. These events cause modifications to the glomerular filtration barrier and finally result in albuminuria. Therefore, alterations of rGECs play a crucial role in the initiation and progression of DN.

Given the pathophysiology function of rGECs in DN, a wide range of biomarkers including oxidative stress biomarkers, inflammatory cytokines, apoptosis-related proteins, and tight junction proteins have been shown to be involved in the regulation of rGECs [16-18]. Extensive experiments have documented that sitagliptin exerts anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic effects, as well as regulation on lipid accumulation [19]. In our study, we demonstrate that sitagliptin attenuates the HG-induced production of ROS in HrGECs. MDA is one of the best investigated lipid peroxidation products from polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) that is often measured as a biomarker of oxidative stress [20]. 8-OHdG is an oxidized nucleoside of DNA frequently detected in cells with DNA lesion [21]. Our results prove that the HG-induced increase in MDA and 8-OHdG levels were mitigated by sitagliptin. Also, the increased production of the inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-8 in HrGECs in response to HG stimulation was prevented by sitagliptin. Tight junction proteins in the spaces between endothelial cells are vital for maintaining endothelium integrity [22]. We found that the decreased expression of the tight junction component claudin-5 in HG-induced HrGECs was attenuated by sitagliptin. Moreover, sitagliptin improved the cell permeability of HrGECs together with elevated TEER levels. Collectively, sitagliptin reversed HG-induced alternations of HrGECs.

The Krüppel-like factor (KLF) family contains a group of zinc finger DNA-binding proteins, which are implicated in a myriad of physiological processes, such as differentiation, proliferation, metabolism, as well as oxidative stress, and inflammation responses [23]. It has been shown that dysregulation of the KLF family factors disrupts cellular homeostasis and contributes to the development of various diseases. The KLF proteins, including KLF2, KLF4, KLF5, KLF6, and KLF15 are known to regulate kidney injury/disease. Additionally, KLF6 is a critical member of the KLF family involved in diabetes and diabetic complications [24-27]. Here we found that sitagliptin prevented HG-induced reduction of KLF6 in HrGECs. Moreover, the silencing of KLF6 in HrGECs abolished the protective effects of sitagliptin on HG-induced HrGECs. In renal tissue, previous work shows that KLF6 is upregulated in periglomerular activated fibroblasts during the development of renal fibrosis [28], suggesting its role in the process of renal tissue remodeling. In the vascular system, KLF6 is involved in the regulation of angiogenesis, vascular repair, and remodeling after vascular injury [29-31]. Particularly, KLF6 has been shown to be involved in anti-cholesterol drug-mediated endothelial protection by reducing monocytes’ adhesion to endothelial cells [32]. Our study demonstrates that KLF6 is required for the effect of sitagliptin in renal vascular cells, suggesting a critical role of KLF6 signaling in renal vascular protection.

Conclusion

In conclusion, our study demonstrates that the DDP4 inhibitor sitagliptin ameliorates high glucose-induced oxidative stress, inflammation, and hyperpermeability in renal glomerular endothelial cells. The beneficial effect of sitagliptin requires the transcription factor regulator KLF6. Our findings indicate that sitagliptin has a protective role on vascular cells in the renal tissue to counter high glucose-induced stress. Sitagliptin might have a beneficial effect in the prevention of diabetic nephropathy and could be used as an option for preventing diabetes-related renal complications.