The myocardial infarction-associated transcript 2 inhibits lipid accumulation and promotes cholesterol efflux in oxidized low-density lipoprotein-induced THP-1-derived macrophages via inhibiting mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling and activating the nuclear factor erythroid-related factor 2 signaling pathway.

Dysregulated lipid metabolism of macrophages contributes to thrombosis and antiphospholipid syndrome (APS). The long non-coding RNAs (lncRNA) myocardial infarction-associated transcript 2 (Mirt2) has been reported to inhibit inflammation and lipid accumulation; therefore, this study intended to clarify whether Mirt2 served a role in lipid metabolism. THP-1-derived macrophages with or without Mirt2-knockdown or overexpression, were exposed to oxidized low-density lipoprotein (ox-LDL), then cell migration, lipid accumulation, cholesterol efflux and inflammation were assessed using wound healing, oil red staining, commercial kits and western blot assays. Besides, ML385 was used to treat THP-1-derived macrophages to inhibit nuclear factor erythroid-related factor 2 (NRF2) expression. The expression of proteins involved in the above processes were measured by western blot. Results demonstrated that phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) significantly increased Mirt2 expression in THP-1 cells. Mirt2-knockdown enhanced ox-LDL-induced macrophage migration, lipid accumulation, inflammation, and inhibited cholesterol efflux. By contrast, Mirt2 overexpression displayed the opposite effects. Furthermore, Mirt2-knockdown inhibited NRF2 signaling and enhanced mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling, while Mirt2 overexpression displayed the opposite effects. Finally, the NRF2 inhibitor ML385 significantly reversed the above effects of Mirt2. In summary, Mirt2 served an important role in regulating lipid metabolism in macrophages via inhibiting MAPK signaling and activating the NRF2 signaling pathway.

Introduction

Arterial and venous thrombosis is one of the major clinical symptoms of antiphospholipid syndrome (APS), which can affect any organ of the body [1]. Moreover, thrombosis is the main cause of APS-associated death, and thrombosis prevention has been a challenge in the treatment of APS [1]. Macrophages are the major immune cell population in the arterial plaques, have been suggested to play a central role in the immune responses and progression of thrombosis [2]. Dysregulated lipid metabolism of macrophage is the pathological basis of thrombosis [3]. Macrophages can turn into foam cells by uptaking oxidized low-density lipoprotein (ox-LDL), which is accompanied by disruption of the normal cholesterol homeostatic balance, including the uptake and efflux of cholesterol [4]. The cholesterol efflux of macrophage is a process of exporting excess cholesterol from hepatic cells under normal condition, which is considered to be crucial for preventing atherogenesis [5]. The cholesterol transporters ATP-binding cassette A1 (ABCA1) and G1 (ABCG1) regulate active cholesterol efflux to apolipoprotein A1 (apoA1) and high-density lipoprotein (HDL), respectively [6]. ABCG1 and ABCA1 transporters serve a key role in the regulation of cholesterol transport and the development of thrombosis [7]. However, the mechanisms underlying lipid regulation in macrophages are not fully understood. Therefore, to explore the molecular mechanisms underlying lipid regulation in macrophages is urgent for exploiting novel therapies for treating APS and other lipid metabolism-associated diseases, such as atherosclerosis (AS).

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are a class of non-protein-coding transcripts that are larger than 200 bases in length [8] and are associated with numerous physiological and pathological events, including cell differentiation, cell cycle regulation and tumor metastasis [9-11]. Recent studies have demonstrated that lncRNA myocardial infarction-associated transcript 2 (Mirt2) overexpression exerts anti-inflammatory effects via microRNA-101 suppression [12]. In addition, Mirt2 inhibition was found to promote lipid droplets accumulation in normal mouse livers [13]. However, its role in lipid metabolism requires further investigation.

Nuclear factor erythroid-related factor 2 (NRF2) is a redox-sensitive transcription factor that prevents oxidative stress by regulating cytoprotective genes, including NAD(P)H quinone dehydrogenase 1 (NQO1), heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1) and glutamate-cysteine ligase [14]. It is worth noting that it is reported that after feeding a high-fat diet, NRF2 inhibits lipid accumulation and oxidative stress in the liver tissue of mice by inhibiting lipogenesis and cholesterol production signaling pathways [15]. In macrophages, NRF2 suppressed inflammatory response by blocking proinflammatory cytokine transcription [16]. Moreover, activation of NRF2 axis was associated with alleviation of oxidative stress-induced vascular endothelial cell injury and thrombosis-related factor expression [17]. All these studies suggested the inhibitory effect of NRF2 activation on macrophages inflammation and lipid accumulation.

The mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway is a classic inflammation-associated signaling pathway, which consists of ERK-1/2, p38 and JNK. MAPK signaling transmits stimuli signals and regulates various cellular processes, including the inflammatory response [18,19]. A previous study has demonstrated that inhibition of the MAPK/JNK signaling pathway and activation of the NRF2 signaling pathway attenuate lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammation in mouse macrophages [20]. Notably, Mirt2 was previously reported to inhibit inflammation via suppressing activation of MAPK signaling [12].

In the present study, we speculated that Mirt2 may regulate lipid metabolism in macrophages via regulating NRF2 and MAPK signalings. We aimed to demonstrate whether Mirt2 may serve a role in lipid metabolism and cholesterol efflux in macrophages via inhibiting MAPK signaling and activating NRF2 signaling.

Methods

Cell culture

THP-1 monocyte-like cells (American Type Culture Collection) were cultured in RPMI-1640 medium supplemented with 10% FBS, 2 mM L-glutamine and 1% penicillin/streptomycin (all Gibco) at 37°C with 5% CO2. THP-1 cells were differentiated into macrophages by exposure to 100 nM PMA (Sigma-Aldrich) as previously described [21] for indicated hours. Then cells were incubated with 50 μg/ml ox-LDL for 24 h. For NRF2 inhibition, 2 μM ML385 (Sigma-Aldrich) was used to treat cells for 24 h.

Vector construction and transfection

Mirt2 short hairpin RNA (shRNA) plasmids (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc.) or scrambled shRNA (shRNA-NC) were designed by Genscript Biotechnology (Nanjing, China). The full-length Mirt2 cDNA was amplified and cloned into the pcDNA3.0 vector to construct the overexpression plasmid, and the empty pcDNA3.0 vector was used as a negative control (NC). All the plasmids (20 μg) were transfected into cells using Lipofectamine 2000 (Invitrogen) as previously reported [22]. Transfection efficiency was evaluated after 48 h of transfection via RT-qPCR.

RT-qPCR

RT-qPCR was performed as previously reported [23]. Total RNA from THP-1 cells was extracted using TRIZOL kit (Invitrogen). The RNA was then reversely transcribed into cDNA using a reverse transcription kit (Takara, Bio, Inc.). DNA was amplified using a SYBR Green PCR kit (Takara). All sequences of primers were as follows: Mirt2: forward, 5ʹ-TCAACACTTTCCATA-GGT-3ʹ and reverse, 5ʹ-ATTGTGAGGTCCAGATAG-3ʹ. ABCA1: forward, 5ʹ-AGGCTTGTCAAGGGGTAGGA-3ʹ and reverse, 5ʹ-GCAGCAGCTGACATGTTTGT-3ʹ. ABCG1: forward, 5ʹ-TGTCTGATGGCCGCTTTCTC-3ʹ and reverse, 5ʹ-CTGGACACCACCTCATCCAC-3ʹ. GAPDH: forward, 5ʹ-GCAACCGGGAAGGAAATGAATG-3ʹ and reverse, 5ʹ-CCCAATACGACCAAATCAGAGA-3ʹ. Expression levels of target genes were analyzed using the 2−ΔΔCt method and GAPDH was used as an internal control for detection.

Western blotting

Western blotting was performed as previously reported [23]. Proteins from THP-1 cells were isolated using RIPA buffer (Beyotime) and quantified via BCA kit (Beyotime). Proteins (40 μg) were separated by 10–12% SDS-PAGE and then transferred to PVDF membranes. After being blocked with 1% skimmed milk at room temperature, the membranes were incubated with primary antibodies. Subsequently, the membranes were incubated with HRP-conjugated secondary antibody at room temperature for 2 h. Protein expression was analyzed using Image J software (version 6.0; National Institute of Health). The secondary antibody was an HRP-conjugated goat anti-rabbit IgG (Abcam; 1:20000).

Wound healing assay

Wound healing assay was performed as previously reported [24]. Control or transfected THP-1 cells were plated into 6-well plates and cultured in RPMI-1640 medium containing 100 nM PMA for 48 h to differentiate into macrophages, followed with exposure to 50 μg/ml ox-LDL with 2 μM ML385 co-treatment for 24 h or not. Subsequently, a linear wound was made using a sterile 200-μl pipette tip and the culture medium was replaced with serum-free RPMI-1640 medium. Wounds were observed using an inverted light microscope at 0 and 24 h (magnification, x100). The migration distance was calculated as the width of the scratch at 24 h minus the width of the scratch at 0 h. The relative migration rate was calculated by normalizing to the control group.

Oil red o staining

Oil Red O staining was conducted to identify lipid droplets [13]. Control or transfected THP-1 cells were plated into 6-well plates and cultured in RPMI-1640 medium containing 100 nM PMA for 48 h to differentiate into macrophages, followed with exposure to 50 μg/ml ox-LDL with 2 μM ML385 co-treatment for 24 h or not. After fixation with 4% paraformaldehyde at room temperature for 30 min, cells were stained with 5% Oil Red O (Beyotime) at room temperature for 30 min, followed by staining with hematoxylin. Stained sections were visualized using a light microscope (magnification, x200; Leica Microsystems GmbH).

Cholesterol level and cholesterol efflux assay

Cholesterol levels were determined using an Amplex Red Cholesterol Assay kit (cat. no. A12216; Thermo Fisher Scientific, Inc.) according to the manufacturer’s protocol [25]. Cholesterol efflux was evaluated using a cholesterol efflux kit (Abcam) referring to the manufacturer’s protocol.

ELISA

TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 levels were evaluated using respective ELISA kits (Abcam) in accordance with the manufacturer’s protocols as previously reported [26]. In brief, control or transfected THP-1 cells were seeded into 96-well plates at a density of 2 × 104 cells/well and cultured in RPMI-1640 medium containing 100 nM PMA for 48 h to differentiate into macrophages, followed with exposure to 50 μg/ml ox-LDL with 2 μM ML385 co-treatment for 24 h or not. Subsequently, biotin-conjugated antibodies targeted against TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 were added to medium and incubation at 37°C for 1 h. Following incubation with working solution and TMB solution, absorbance was measured at a wavelength of 450 nm.

Statistical analysis

Data were expressed as the mean ± SD from three independent assays. The comparison between two groups were analyzed using Student’s t-test, among more than two groups were analyzed by one-way ANOVA test. All analysis was carried out on GraphPad Prism 8 software. P < 0.05 was considered statistically significant difference.

Results

Phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) increases lncRNA Mirt2 expression

Firstly, the effect of PMA on lncRNA Mirt2 expression was assessed. Treatment of THP-1 cells with PMA for 12 h significantly increased Mirt2 expression, which was further increased following treatment with PMA for 24 h, plateauing after treatment with PMA for 48 h (Figure 1(a)). The results suggested that PMA displayed a stimulatory effect on Mirt2 expression in THP-1 cells. PMA treatment for 48 h was used to stimulate the differentiation of THP-1 cells into macrophages.

Figure 1.

Mirt2 inhibits ox-LDL-induced THP-1 cell migration. (a) Mirt2 expression in THP-1 cells treated with PMA for different durations. (b) Mirt2 expression in PMA-treated THP-1 cells transfected with shRNA-mirt2 or pcDNA-mirt2. (c and d) PMA-treated THP-1 cell migration following transfection was detected using wound healing assays (magnification, x100). *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01; ***P < 0.001.

Mirt2 inhibits ox-LDL-induced macrophage migration

To evaluate the involvement of Mirt2 in lipid accumulation, Mirt2 overexpression and Mirt2 shRNA plasmids were constructed. Two shRNA expression vectors (shRNA-Mirt2-1 and shRNA-Mirt2-2) were constructed to knockdown Mirt2 expression. PMA-treated THP-1 cells that transfected with empty plasmids were used as a negative control. The results demonstrated a better knockdown effect of shRNA-Mirt2-1 than shRNA-Mirt2-2; thus, shRNA-Mirt2-1 was chosen for subsequent experiments (Figure 1(b)).

Subsequently, the effect of Mirt2 on macrophage migration was evaluated. ox-LDL significantly increased PAM-induced macrophage migration, which was further enhanced by Mirt2-1 shRNA (Figure 1(c,d)). By contrast, Mirt2 overexpression significantly inhibited ox-LDL-induced macrophage migration (Figure 1(c,d)), suggesting that Mirt2 served a protective role in ox-LDL-stimulated macrophage migration.

Mirt2 inhibits ox-LDL-induced lipid accumulation and promotes ox-LDL-reduced cholesterol efflux in PMA-induced macrophages

The effect of Mirt2 on lipid accumulation in macrophages was investigated by performing Oil Red O staining. A marked increase in lipid accumulation was induced by ox-LDL treatment, which was further enhanced by Mirt2 shRNA (Figure 2(a)). By contrast, Mirt2 overexpression significantly suppressed ox-LDL-induced lipid accumulation, suggesting that Mirt2 served a protective role in ox-LDL-stimulated lipid accumulation.

Figure 2.

Effect of Mirt2-knockdown and overexpression on lipid accumulation in PMA-treated THP-1 cells. (a) Oil Red O staining of PMA-treated THP-1 cells subjected to corresponding treatments (magnification, x200). Intracellular (b) TC and (c) FC levels in PMA-treated THP-1 cells subjected to corresponding treatments. (d) Srebp1c, SCAP, PPARγ and FASN protein expression in PMA-treated THP-1 cells. *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01; ***P < 0.001.

Subsequently, the effect of Mirt2 on intracellular total cholesterol (TC) and free cholesterol (FC) levels in macrophages was assessed using a cholesterol assay kit. Intracellular TC (Figure 2(b)) and FC (Figure 2(c)) levels were increased significantly by ox-LDL and further enhanced by Mirt2-1 shRNA. By contrast, Mirt2 overexpression significantly inhibited ox-LDL-induced intracellular TC and FC levels (Figure 2(b,c)), suggesting that Mirt2 served a protective role in ox-LDL-induced TC and FC levels.

Furthermore, western blot assay was utilized to evaluate the involvement of Mirt2 in ox-LDL-induced alterations in lipid synthesis-associated proteins. The expression levels of sterol regulatory element-binding transcription factor 1 (Srebp1c), SREBF chaperone (SCAP), fatty acid synthase (FASN) and PPARγ were significantly increased by ox-LDL and further enhanced by Mirt2-1 shRNA (Figure 2(d)). By contrast, Mirt2 overexpression significantly inhibited ox-LDL-induced increases in the expression levels of Srebp1c, SCAP, FASN and PPARγ (Figure 2(d)).

The involvement of Mirt2 in ox-LDL-induced alterations in cholesterol efflux were further investigated. Cholesterol efflux was significantly decreased by ox-LDL and further decreased by Mirt2-1 shRNA (Figure 3(a)). By contrast, Mirt2 overexpression significantly enhanced ox-LDL-induced decreases in cholesterol efflux (Figure 3(a)).

Figure 3.

Effect of Mirt2-knockdown and overexpression on cholesterol efflux and inflammation in PMA-treated THP-1 cells. (a) Cholesterol efflux of PMA-treated THP-1 cells subjected to corresponding treatments. ABCA1 and ABCG1 (b) mRNA and (c) protein expression in PMA-treated THP-1 cells. (d) Concentrations of TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 in the culture medium of PMA-treated THP-1 cells. *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01; ***P < 0.001.

The involvement of Mirt2 in ox-LDL-induced alterations in cholesterol efflux-associated proteins were also investigated via RT-qPCR and western blotting assays. ABCA1 and ABCG1 expression levels were significantly decreased by ox-LDL and further decreased by Mirt2-1 shRNA (Figure 3(b,c)). By contrast, Mirt2 overexpression significantly enhanced ox-LDL-induced decreases in ABCA1 and ABCG1 expression levels (Figure 3(b,c)).

Mirt2 inhibits ox-LDL-induced production of inflammatory factors in PMA-induced macrophages

The involvement of Mirt2 in ox-LDL-induced alterations in inflammatory factors was assessed by performing ELISAs. The levels of TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 were considerably up-regulated by ox-LDL and further enhanced by Mirt2-1 shRNA (Figure 3(d)). By contrast, Mirt2 overexpression significantly inhibited ox-LDL-induced increase in the production of these inflammatory factors (Figure 3(d)).

Mirt2 can activate NRF2 signaling and inhibit MAPK activation in PMA-induced macrophages

Furthermore, the involvement of Mirt2 in ox-LDL-induced alterations in the protein expression levels of NRF2, NQO1, and HO-1 was assessed via western blotting. The protein expression levels of NRF2, NQO1, and HO-1 were significantly decreased by ox-LDL and further decreased by Mirt2-1 shRNA (Figure 4(a)). By contrast, Mirt2 overexpression significantly enhanced ox-LDL-induced decreases in the expression levels of NRF2, NQO1, and HO-1 (Figure 4(a)).

Figure 4.

Effect of Mirt2-knockdown and overexpression on NRF2 and MAPK signaling in PMA-treated THP-1 cells. Expression of proteins associated with (a) NRF2 and (b) MAPK signaling in PMA-treated THP-1 cells subjected to corresponding treatments. *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01; ***P < 0.001.

The involvement of the MAPK signaling pathway, including p-ERK1/2, ERK 1/2, p-JNK, JNK, p-p38 and p38, in Mirt2-mediated lipid metabolism was assessed via western blotting. The levels of p-ERK1/2, ERK 1/2, p-JNK, JNK, p-p38, and p38 were significantly increased by ox-LDL, and further enhanced by Mirt2-1 shRNA (Figure 4(b)). By contrast, Mirt2 overexpression significantly inhibited ox-LDL-induced increases in the expression levels of p-ERK1/2, ERK 1/2, p-JNK, JNK, p-p38 and p38 (Figure 4(b)).

NRF2 inhibition reverses the effect of Mirt2 overexpression on macrophage migration, lipid accumulation, cholesterol efflux and inflammation

The involvement of NRF2 in the actions of Mirt2 was investigated. The specific NRF2 inhibitor ML385 significantly reversed the inhibitory effect of Mirt2 overexpression on cell migration (Figure 5(a)), lipid accumulation (Figure 5(b,c)) and the expression levels of lipid synthesis-associated proteins (Figure 5(d)). Similarly, ML385 significantly reversed Mirt2-induced alterations in cholesterol efflux and the expression of associated proteins (Figure 6(a,b)).

Figure 5.

NRF2 inhibition reverses the inhibitory effect of Mirt2 overexpression on PMA-treated THP-1 cell migration and lipid accumulation. (a) PMA-treated THP-1 cell migration following treatment with ML385 in the presence of ox-LDL and Mirt2 overexpression (magnification, x100). (b) Oil Red O staining of PMA-treated THP-1 cells following treatment with ML385 in the presence of ox-LDL and Mirt2 overexpression (magnification, x200). (c) Intracellular TC and FC levels in PMA-treated THP-1 cells following treatment with ML385 in the presence of ox-LDL and Mirt2 overexpression. (d) Protein expression levels of Srebp1c, SCAP, PPARγ and FASN in PMA-treated THP-1 cells following treatment with ML385 in the presence of ox-LDL and Mirt2 overexpression. *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01; ***P < 0.001.

Figure 6.

NRF2 inhibition reverses the effect of Mirt2 overexpression on cholesterol efflux, NRF2 and MAPK signaling pathways in PMA-treated THP-1 cells. (a) Cholesterol efflux of PMA-treated THP-1 cells following treatment with ML385 in the presence of ox-LDL and Mirt2 overexpression. (b) Protein expression levels of ABCA1 and ABCG1 in PMA-treated THP-1 cells following treatment with ML385 in the presence of ox-LDL and Mirt2 overexpression. Expression levels of proteins associated with (c) NRF2 and (d) MAPK signaling in PMA-treated THP-1 cells following treatment with ML385 in the presence of ox-LDL and Mirt2 overexpression. *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01; ***P < 0.001.

Finally, the involvement of NRF2 in the inhibitory effect of Mirt2 on NRF2 and MAPK signaling was evaluated. The specific NRF2 inhibitor ML385 significantly reversed Mirt2-induced NRF2 activation and MAPK inhibition (Figure 6(c,d)).

Discussion

The present study demonstrated that Mirt2 displayed a significant inhibitory effect on lipid metabolism, as Mirt2 inhibited ox-LDL-induced macrophage migration and lipid accumulation, intracellular TC levels and lipid synthesis-associated gene expression, including Srebp1c, SCAP, FASN and PPARγ. In addition, Mirt2 promoted ox-LDL-mediated inhibition of cholesterol efflux and the expression of associated genes, including ABCA1 and ABCG1. Furthermore, Mirt2 inhibited ox-LDL-induced expression of inflammatory factors, including TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6, and ox-LDL-induced increases in the expression levels of MAPK signaling pathway-associated proteins, including p-ERK1/2, ERK 1/2, p-JNK, JNK, p-p38 and p38. Finally, the results indicated that Mirt2 decreased NRF2 expression, and that the NRF2 inhibitor ML385 significantly reversed Mirt2-induced cell migration, lipid accumulation and the expression of proteins involved in lipid synthesis.

Mirt2 expression is upregulated in myocardial infarction and was reported to regulate inflammatory response, extracellular matrix synthesis and apoptosis [27]. By contrast, the present study demonstrated that Mirt2 displayed a protective role by inhibiting ox-LDL-induced macrophage migration and lipid accumulation, intracellular TC levels and lipid synthesis-associated gene expression, including Srebp1c, SCAP, FASN and PPARγ, indicating that Mirt2 may serve a critical role in cardiac diseases, including myocardial infarction and AS.

Cholesterol homeostatic imbalance, including the uptake, intracellular metabolism and efflux of cholesterol, serves an important role in the conversion of macrophages into foam cells, and macrophage cholesterol efflux is crucial for preventing atherogenesis and thrombosis [28,29]. The cholesterol transporters ABCA1 and ABCG1 mediate active cholesterol efflux to apoA1 and HDL, respectively [6]. Therefore, ABCG1 and ABCA1 transporters serve a critical role in the regulation of cholesterol transport and the development of thrombosis [7]. Consistent with the aforementioned studies, the current study demonstrated that Mirt2 promoted ox-LDL-induced inhibition of cholesterol efflux and the expression levels of associated genes, including ABCA1 and ABCG1, which indicated that Mirt2 may serve a critical role in preventing the development of thrombosis.

LPS increases Mirt2 expression, and Mirt2 can prevent aberrant activation of inflammation in macrophages [12]. Mirt2 associates with inactivation of NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways, and limits release of proinflammatory factors [12,30]. In accordance with the aforementioned studies, the present study demonstrated that Mirt2 expression was increased in response to ox-LDL stimulation, and Mirt2 inhibited ox-LDL-induced expression of inflammatory factors, including TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6. The results suggested that Mirt2 may play a role in macrophage-associated diseases.

The effect of NRF2 on the protection against AS has been reported in previous studies. For example, NRF2 signaling pathway is closely associated with the development of AS through modulating foam cell formation, lipid homeostasis, and inflammation [31]. Furthermore, it has been proposed that targeted activation of NRF2 may serve as a useful therapeutic strategy to reduce the impact of cardiovascular disease [32]. Consistently, the present study revealed that Mirt2 exerted its protective role in AS-associated pathological alterations via increasing NRF2 expression in macrophages. Furthermore, it has been indicated that the MAPK signaling functions as an important mediator in the uptake of ox-LDL into macrophages, thus contributing to the progression of AS [33-35]. The present study demonstrated that Mirt2 prevented ox-LDL-activated MAPK signaling. However, there are some limitations in this study. First, only in vitro experiments were performed; therefore, in vivo studies and experimental techniques are needed to validate the present conclusions. Second, the mechanisms underlying the role of Mirt2 in lipid accumulation and cholesterol efflux may also involve other signaling pathways or molecular regulators, which require further exploration.

Conclusion

Taken together, the current study showed that Mirt2 overexpression activated NRF2 signaling and inhibited MAPK signaling, which promoted cholesterol efflux, but inhibited lipid accumulation and inflammation in macrophages. Therefore, the Mirt2/NRF2/MAPK signaling pathway may provide novel insight into the initiation and development of lipid metabolism-associated diseases, including thrombosis, APS and AS, thus providing a novel therapeutic approach for these diseases.