Assessing the potential of exogenous caffeic acid application in boosting wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) crop productivity under salt stress.

Caffeic acid (CA) is known as an antioxidant to scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS), but the underlying mechanism of mediation of plant salt tolerance against various abiotic stresses by caffeic acid is only partially understood. A field experiment (120 days duration) was conducted to investigate the protective role of caffeic acid under a high saline medium (EC 8.7 dS m-1 and textural class: sandy loam) in two wheat genotypes (FSD -08 and Zincol-16). Two levels of caffeic acid (50 μM and 100 μM) were applied exogenously in combination with the salinity stress and results revealed that salt alleviation is more prominent when caffeic acid was applied at the rate of 100 μM. Under saline conditions, wheat genotypes show poor fresh and dry matter accumulation, chlorophyll contents, relative water contents (RWC), membrane stability index (MSI) and activities of antioxidant enzymes and increased uptake of Na+ ions. However, wheat genotype FSD-08 eminently responded to caffeic acid application as compared to wheat genotype Zincol-16 as demonstrated by higher growth indicators, RWC, MSI, activities of antioxidant enzymes, accumulation of mineral ions in grain along with yield attributes. In addition, caffeic acid also mitigated salt-induced oxidative stress malondialdehyde (MDA) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) contents as well as significantly reduced Na+ uptake. It can be concluded that caffeic acid-induced salinity tolerance in wheat is attributed to improved plant water relations, K+ uptake, yield contents and activities of antioxidant stress enzymes.

Introduction

Soil salinity is a major abiotic constraint that disturbs the major cellular functions, affecting plant productivity and survival all over the world. Soil degradation due to water scarcity, diminishing natural resources and global warming negatively impacts agricultural production and food security [1]. Soil salinity is major abiotic stress in many regions and an estimated 9–34% of the world’s cultivated land is severely affected by soil secondary salinization [2]. Elevated NaCl level in the soil leads to nutrient imbalance, growth inhibition, osmotic stress, ionic toxicity and photosynthetic impairment. Human-induced soil salinization results in the desertification of large cultivated land and there is a fear of sequel in 50% of cultivated land up to 2050 [3]. Salinity leads to poor seed germination [4] deteriorated energy and lipid metabolism [5] accumulation of toxic ions, interrupted photosynthesis [6] and generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that affect biological membrane integrity and metabolic damage and finally reduced crop yield [7]. Soil salinity leads to more accumulation of Na+ and Cl- ions which retards K+ and Ca+ uptake causing stunted plant growth [8]. Moreover, salt-induced ROS also destroy membrane permeability and protein production consequently leading to cell death.

In underdeveloped countries, sustainable agricultural production is a major source of economic growth and development. Wheat is the most widely adopted cereal serves as a staple food in 43 countries and plays a vital role in ensuring food security [9]. Soil salinization is a major abiotic stress that adversely affects the rate of germination, seedling establishment, plant growth and development finally lead to a decrease in the yield of the wheat plant [10]. At the germination and early seedling phase of the development of cereals, elevated salt stress imposes strong deleterious effects on the growth, biochemical processes and physiology of crop and results in poor seed germination [11], fresh and dry matter [12], photosynthesis [13], influence accumulation of mineral nutrients [14]. To ensure sustainable wheat yield, it is important to improve the salt resistance of wheat cultivars as this salt tolerance improvement is much less expensive for small landholding farmers in developing countries than other management practices [15].

To improve salt tolerance, various efforts have been made to minimize the deleterious effects of soil salinity by the application of different exogenous substances like salicylic acid [16], nitric oxide [17], Polyamine [18], melatonin [19] and glycine betaine [20]. Caffeic acid (3,4-dihydroxycinnamic acid; CA) is a cinnamic acid found naturally in a number of plant species and is primarily involved in lignin synthesis. Furthermore, it also regulates cell expansion, turgor balance, plant water relations and phototropism [21]. Antioxidant capacity of caffeic acid and its derivatives fortify a number of crops from various biotic and biotic stresses including high-temperature stress, pathogen attack, drought, heavy metals and salt stress by regenerating roots, upregulation of antioxidant enzymes, modifying the expression of several salt-tolerant genes, improved plant water relations and effective scavenging of reactive oxygen species (ROS) [22,23]. Caffeic acid enhances salt resistance in many crops including cucumber [24], Glycine max [25] and soybean [26].

Wheat is a prime nutritional crop for human and livestock consumption. It is cultivated globally for its seed and cereal grains but this crop is moderately submissive to salt stress. In recent years, prodigious studies on caffeic acid in plants have been reported but its role in ameliorating salt stress in cereals especially wheat is rarely reported in the literature. It is observed that plants can also absorb exogenously applied caffeic acid, absorbed and accumulated it in their tissues, with mitigating effects under some abiotic stresses. The current study was intended to understand the morpho-physiological responses of wheat genotypes (FSD-08 and Zincol-16) to the saline environment and alleviating role of caffeic acid on plant growth and physiology, improved nutrition, water contents and yield attributes along with modulating the activities of antioxidant enzymes in wheat confronting salt stress. Our study highlights the role of caffeic acid in improving salt-resistance and growth of wheat genotypes under salt stress and uses this information to get sustainable production from salt prone zones.

Materials and methods

Experimental site and growth conditions

A field experiment (Mid -October to mid-march) was conducted at the saline field of the Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Pakistan (Latitude: 29°23’60.00"N, Longitude: 71°40’59.99"E) to evaluate the performance of exogenously applied caffeic acid on two wheat genotypes (FSD-08 and Zincol-16) in saline condition. The experimental area is characterized by a semi-arid climate with an average rainfall of 2.5 mm while the mean maximum and minimum temperatures during the research were noted as 27.46°C and 12.63°C. The physio-chemical soil properties were analyzed before sowing as described by Ryan et al. [27]. The soil use for this experiment has textural class: sandy loam, EC 8.7 dS m-1, organic matter contents 0.28%, pH 7.2, total nitrogen (N) contents 0.02%, available phosphorus (P) 6 mg kg-1 and extractable potassium (K) 68 mg kg -1. Seeds of both genotypes @ 100 kg ha-1 have been sown on 9 cm apart beds through hand drill and net plot size was 3 x 3 meter. Fertilizer was applied according to the recommended dose of N, P, K @ 125-90-65 kg ha-1 in the form of urea, single super phosphate (SSP) and sulfate of potash (SOP). The experiment was performed with four replications in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) and comprised of the following treatments: saline field with EC 8.7 (T1), saline field + 50 μM caffeic acid (T2) and saline field + 100 μM caffeic acid (T3). All P and K fertilizers doses were applied at the time of sowing while N was provided in three splits (at sowing, with first irrigation and with second irrigation). Plants were irrigated with good quality irrigation water (EC 412 μS cm-1). Growth and yield attributes were recorded at maturity.

Harvesting and plant analysis

Plants were harvested at maturity, roots and shoots were separated and growth attributes along with other physiological, photosynthetic, ionic and biochemical attributes by adopting standard protocols. Root and shoot length were measured by measurement scale in centimeters (cm) while fresh and dry weight (in grams) was measured by using digital weighing balance.

Relative water contents

Fully expended youngest leaves of the plant from each treatment were selected and Relative water contents (RWC) were measured by adopting the method of [28] after taking fresh, dry and turgid weight.

Membrane stability index

Membrane stability index (MSI) was calculated by following the procedure followed by Sairam and Saxena [29]. The leaf disk (100 mg) was heated at 40°C in 10 ml water for thirty minutes in a water bath and Electrical conductivity (EC) (C1) was observed through an EC meter. Then the same sample was again heated at 100°C for ten minutes and EC was observed as C2.

Oxidative stress indicators

Lipid peroxidation (MDA) contents were assessed following the procedure given by Jambunathan, [30] by taking 0.25 g fresh leaves extract and centrifuge it for 15 min at 10,000 × r. The subtraction of absorbance at 532 nm and 600 nm was done for corrections of unspecific turbidity. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) contents were quantified following the protocol described by Velikova and Yardanov [31]. The leaf segment (0.2 g) was normalized in 1 mL of 0.1% TCA solution and extracted after centrifugation at 8000 × r for 15 min. A reaction solution of 1M potassium iodide (1 mL), 10 mM K-P buffer solution (0.5 mL) and supernatant (0.5 mL) was prepared to observe the absorbance at 390 nm.

Antioxidant enzymes

Leaf segment (0.5 g) was homogenized with 10 ml of extracting buffer solution (50 mM phosphate, pH 7.8, 1 g polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), 1mM EDTA and 0.5% Triton X-100) at 0–4°C. The homogenate was centrifuged at 12,000 rpm for 20 minutes and used for enzymes assays. The prepared supernatant used for the analysis of superoxide dismutase (SOD) was measured at 560 nm Giannopolitis et al. [32], peroxidase (POD) activity was measured by using guaiacol, H2O2, KH2PO4 buffer with EDTA (pH 7) and measured at 470 while catalase (CAT) was measured at 240 nm Chance and Maehly [33], Ascorbate peroxidase (APX) activity was measured by the following method of Chen et al [34]. The reaction mixture (50 mM phosphate buffer (pH 7.0) and 12.5 mM H2O2) was mixed with 0.2 mL of enzyme extract. The absorbance was measured at 240 nm with a spectrophotometer.

K+/Na+ ratio

Leaf strip (0.5 g) was taken and digested with 8ml of digestion mixture HNO3:HClO4 (3:1 v/v) according to the method demonstrated by Chapman and Pratt [35] for the determination of K+ and Na+ contents through a flame photometer (Jenway- PFP-7- London, United Kingdom).

Grain analysis and yield attributes

Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium contents in wheat grain were measured by adopting the procedures followed by Adbel-Aziz et al. [36]. Grains samples were digested and N contents were determined according to the Kjeldahl method Ryan etal. [27] by using Kjeldahl apparatus (F30200189 UDK 132, England), P concentration was determined by spectrophotometer (CE7400, 146–630, England), Chapma [37] while K contents by flame photometer (201600255,UK).

Statistical analysis

The data were statistically analyzed with Statistical software SPSS and presented in the form of tables and graphs. The bars in the graph show the mean values of four replicates. The comparison of treatment means was compared by the least significant difference (LSD) test to quantify the source of variation at 5% (P <0.05) Steel et al. [38].

Results

Plant biomass

In the present study, different morphological attributes of two wheat genotypes (FSD-08 and Zincol-16) were measured under saline conditions with or without the application of caffeic acid (Table 1). It was noticed that at control treatment (saline field with EC 8.7), both wheat genotypes show poor growth however application of caffeic acid significantly mitigate the hazardous effects of salinity and improve wheat plant growths. As compared to the control treatment, application of caffeic acid @ 50 μM increase root fresh weight, shoot fresh weight, root dry weight, shoot dry weight, root length and shoot length by 5%, 15%, 21%, 22%, 16% and 17% in wheat genotype FSD-08 while by 4, 11, 20, 18, 4 and 14% increase were observed in wheat genotype Zincol-16. Moreover, caffeic acid application @ 100 μM significantly increased root fresh weight (15% and 11%), shoot fresh weight (49% and 22%), root dry weight (50% and 41%), shoot dry weight (72% and 35%), root length (13% and 9%) and shoot length (37% and 28%) in FSD-08 and Zincol-16 seedlings respectively. Wheat genotype FSD-08 respond eminently towards the application of caffeic acid as compared to Zincol-16.

Table 1

Interaction of salinity and exogenously applied caffeic acid on fresh and dry biomass of two wheat genotypes.

Values depict the mean of four replicates and figures not sharing the same letter in each column differ significantly at 0.05 probability level. Treatments include (T1) Control (Saline field with EC 8.7 d S m-1), (T2) Saline field + 50 μM Caffeic acid (T3) Saline field + 50 μM Caffeic acid.

	Root fresh weight (g)		Root dry weight (g)		Shoot fresh weight (g)		Shoot dry weight (g)		Root length (cm)		Shoot length (cm)
	FSD-08	Zincol-16	FSD-08	Zincol-16	FSD-08	Zincol-16	FSD-08	Zincol-16	FSD-08	Zincol-16	FSD-08	Zincol-16
T1	10.3 b	6.4 d	1.8 ab	1.4 b	39.1 c	28.3 f	3.40 c	2.9 d	8.7 b	6.6 c	51 bc	39.1 c
T2	10.82 ab	6.71cd	2.2 ab	1.71 ab	45.2 b	31.4 e	4.18 b	3.44 cd	9.15 b	6.9 c	59.1 ab	44.7 bc
T3	11.76 a	7.14 c	2.71 a	2.05 ab	58.4 a	34.5 d	6.1 a	3.93 c	9.8 a	7.2 c	70 a	50 bc

Physiological attributes

The analyzed data regarding chlorophyll and relative water contents and membrane stability index of salt-stressed wheat genotypes with or without the application of caffeic acid are presented in Fig 1. Compared to the control treatment (where no caffeic acid is applied), it was observed that caffeic acid application at low level (50 μM) increase chlorophyll (SPAD) contents, RWC and MSI by 28%,18% and 16% in wheat genotype FSD-08 while 27%,10% and 13% increase was noted in wheat genotype Zincol-16. However, caffeic acid application @ 100 μM significantly (P <0.05) increase SPAD contents (70% and 58%), RWC (43% and 21%) and MSI (40% and 30%) in FSD-08 and Zincol-16 plants respectively when compared to the plants grown in the saline field without the application of caffeic acid.

Fig 1

The effect of exogenous caffeic acid supply on chlorophyll contents (a), relative water contents (b) and membrane stability index (c) of two wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) varieties subjected to salt stress. The bar values depict the average of three replications and the bars not sharing the same lowercase letters differ significantly from each other according to the HSD test at P < 0.05 probability. Treatments include (T1) Saline field EC 8.7 dS m-1, (T2) saline field + 50 μM caffeic acid, (T3) saline field + 100 μM caffeic acid.

Oxidative stress indicators of wheat

In the current experiment, a high concentration of salinity (8.7 dS m-1) significantly increased the contents of MDA and H2O2 in the tissues of wheat genotypes (Fig 2). The results also depict that the application of caffeic acid decreases the MDA and H2O2 contents in leaf tissues of both wheat genotypes. In detail, the contents of MDA and H2O2 were decreased by 18% and 22% in wheat genotype FSD-08 while 5% and 11% reduction were observed in wheat genotype Zincol-16 when plants were subjected to 50 μM application of caffeic acid. However, provision of a high dose of caffeic acid (100 μM) significantly reduces the MDA and H2O2 contents in wheat genotype FSD-08 by 50% and 48% while 16% and 25% in wheat genotype Zincol-16 as compared to the plants grown in the saline field without the application of caffeic acid. Wheat genotype FSD-08 show low MDA and H2O2 contents under all treatments which show its more salt tolerance as compared to wheat genotype Zincol-16.

Fig 2

The effect of exogenous caffeic acid supply on malondialdehyde (MDA) contents (a) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) (b) of two wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) varieties subjected to salt stress. The bar values depict the average of three replications and the bars not sharing the same lowercase letters differ significantly from each other according to the HSD test at P < 0.05 probability. Treatments include (T1) Saline field EC 8.7 dS m-1, (T2) saline field + 50 μM caffeic acid, (T3) saline field + 100 μM caffeic acid.

Antioxidant enzymes activities

The activities of different enzymatic antioxidants in the leaves of wheat genotypes were also significantly altered under NaCl toxicity and subsequent caffeic acid supply (Fig 3). According to the results, at saline treatment (control), both wheat genotypes show reduced activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), catalase (CAT) and ascorbate peroxidase (APX), however, the maximum reduction was observed in wheat genotype Zincol-16 as compared to genotype FSD-08. Conversely, the caffeic acid application (50 μM) on salt-stressed plants elevate the deleterious effects of salinity and increase the activities of SOD, POD, CAT and APX by 17%,11%,21% and 20% in wheat genotype FSD-08 while 16,7,20 and 14% increase were noted in wheat genotype Zincol-16. Results also indicate a notable increase in antioxidant enzymes activities of SOD, POD, CAT and APX by 45%,23%,45% and 55% in wheat genotype FSD-08 while 22%,17%,30% and 33% increase was observed in wheat genotype Zincol-16 under caffeic acid application @ 100 μM.

Fig 3

The effect of exogenous caffeic acid supply on (a) superoxide dismutase (SOD), (b) peroxidase (POD), (c) catalase (CAT) and (d) ascorbate peroxidase (APX) of two wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) varieties subjected to salt stress. The bar values depict the average of three replications and the bars not sharing the same lowercase letters differ significantly from each other according to the HSD test at P < 0.05 probability. Treatments include (T1) Saline field EC 8.7 dS m-1, (T2) saline field + 50 μM caffeic acid, (T3) saline field + 100 μM caffeic acid.

The results regarding K+ and Na+ accumulation in the leaves of two wheat genotypes and K+/Na+ ration under salinity with or without the application of caffeic acid are shown in Fig 4 Under saline treatment (control), both genotypes show poor K+ contents while prominently high Na+ contents. Under low (50 μM) and elevated (100 μM) exogenous application of caffeic acid, wheat genotype FSD-08 show a 13 and 36% increase in K+ concentration while wheat genotype Zincol-16 depicts an 11% and 20% increase in K+ contents. However, a decrease in Na+ contents with the provision of caffeic acid is noted in the current experiment and wheat genotype FSD-08 show 18% and 45% decrease in Na contents under 50 μM and 100 μM caffeic acid application while 6% and 17% decrease in Na+ contents were presented by wheat genotype Zincol-16. The increased uptake of K+ and reduction in Na+ contents under caffeic acid application concluded in improved K+/Na+ ratio in both wheat genotypes however wheat genotype FSD-08 proved eminent in retaining maximum K+ concentration under all treatments.

Fig 4

The effect of exogenous caffeic acid supply on (a) potassium concentration, (b) sodium concentration and (c) K+/Na+ ratio of two wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) varieties subjected to salt stress. The bar values depict the average of three replications and the bars not sharing the same lowercase letters differ significantly from each other according to the HSD test at P < 0.05 probability. Treatments include (T1) Saline field EC 8.7 dS m-1, (T2) saline field + 50 μM caffeic acid, (T3) saline field + 100 μM caffeic acid.

N, P, K in grain

The results presented in Fig 5 depicted that the plants of both wheat genotypes show a low concentration of NPK in grains when grown in the saline field (control treatment) without the application of caffeic acid. At the same time, exogenous application of caffeic acid (50 μM) increase NPK contents by 32%,22% and 11% in wheat genotype FSD-08 while 30%,20% and 3% increase were noted in wheat genotype Zincol-16. Similarly, plants with application of caffeic acid @ 100 μM presented an increase in NPK contents by 110%,97% and 38% in FSD-08 while 75%,47% and 8% increase were noted in wheat genotype Zincol-16 as compared to the plants grown in the control treatment. Wheat genotype Zincol-16 slightly respond towards caffeic acid application while wheat genotype FSD-08 signifies higher values for NPK concentrations under high and low level of caffeic acid application.

Fig 5

The effect of exogenous caffeic acid supply on (a) nitrogen contents, (b) phosphorus contents and (c) potassium contents in grains of two wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) varieties subjected to salt stress. The bar values depict the average of three replications and the bars not sharing the same lowercase letters differ significantly from each other according to the HSD test at P < 0.05 probability. Treatments include (T1) Saline field EC 8.7 dS m-1, (T2) saline field + 50 μM caffeic acid, (T3) saline field + 100 μM caffeic acid.

Yield attributes

Yield components i.e., spike length, number of spikelets per plant, Number of grains per spike and 1000 grain weight under the saline condition with caffeic acid application is disclosed in Fig 6. It is observed that caffeic acid application enhanced wheat plant yield components under saline conditions but a significant impact was noticed in both wheat genotypes when caffeic acid was applied @ 100 μM. As compared to control plants, when caffeic is applied exogenously at a low level (50 μM), wheat genotype FSD-08 show 20%,27%,35% and 12% increase in spike length, the number of spikelets per plant, Number of grains per spike and 1000 grain weight while 8%,22%, 16% and 7% increase were displayed by wheat genotype Zincol-16. Moreover, results also indicate a significant increase in yield attributes under high dose of caffeic acid (100 μM) and wheat genotype FSD-08 display 50%,63%,88% and 32% while genotype zincol-16 show 21%,33%,50% and 17% increase in terms of spike length, number of spikelets per plant, Number of grains per spike and 1000 grain weight.

Fig 6

The effect of exogenous caffeic acid supply on (a) spike length, (b) number of spikes, (c) number of grains, and (d) 1000 grain weight of two wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) varieties subjected to salt stress. The bar values depict the average of three replications and the bars not sharing the same lowercase letters differ significantly from each other according to the HSD test at P < 0.05 probability. Treatments include (T1) Saline field EC 8.7 dS m-1, (T2) saline field + 50 μM caffeic acid, (T3) saline field + 100 μM caffeic acid.

Discussion

Salinity is one of the most significant abiotic stress, which negatively influencesagricultural crops efficiency and production. In the present experiment, several attributes have been considered to evaluate the response of salt-tolerant and salt-sensitive wheat genotypes with caffeic acid application under salt stress. Growth is contemplated as a result of various physiological mechanisms and its reduction under elevated NaCl stress has been widely reported in the literature [39]. Results of this study showed a negative relation between salt stress and wheat growth however, the responses of wheat genotypes were different. Growth retardation under salinity has been attributed to metabolic impairment, inhibition of cell division and cell expansion, disturbed photosynthetic capacity, disturbed ion homeostasis and generation of ROS which significantly reduces plant biomass [40,41].

Application of exogenous caffeic acid play multifunctional role in modulating plant physiology under saline and non-saline environment. Reduced Na+ influx, mitigation of oxidative stress, improved activity of antioxidant enzymes and photosynthetic activity are major caffeic acid ramifications in improving salt tolerance [42]. Moreover, caffeic acid promotes enlargement in growth traits by minimizing the higher concentration of salts by altering efflux movement of Na+ in roots of salt-affected plants [43].

Salinity affects plant water relations and decreases membrane stability and chlorophyll contents as shown in the current experiment and this reduction was more eminent in wheat genotype FSD-08 as compared to the Zincol-16 genotype of wheat. The presence elevated amount of NaCl in soil significantly reduces the RWC and MSI which results in low water uptake by the plant, depreciate membrane stability, succulence of leaves and plasma membrane damage [44]. Increased Na+ activity disorganize ionic balance in cells and damages plasma membrane with illegitimate production of photosynthetic pigments [45]. Caffeic acid application significantly improved the plant water contents by improving the surface area and capacity of plant roots to absorb more water from the rhizosphere, balanced osmotic regulation, transpiration, stomatal conductance and increase plant water potential [46]. Moreover, caffeic acid regulates antioxidant defense by acting as a scavenger against H2O2 and O2- and minimize ROS production at the cellular level which increases membrane stability [47].

According to Ghonaim et al. [48], salinity induced oxidative stress in wheat might be responsible for cell membrane damage, electrolyte leakage and inhibition in essential nutrient uptake, as illustrated by a high concentration of oxidative stress indicators (MDA and H2O2) under salinity stress (Fig 3). These results are parallel with the findings of [49] who also reported oxidative damage in wheat under saline conditions. However, a remarkable reduction in MDA and H2O2 after exogenous caffeic acid application might be due to lower Na+ uptake, increased cell membrane stability and less exposure of wheat plant roots to high salt concentration [50]. Salinity induced noticeable variation in the K+/Na+ ratio of both wheat genotypes reported in the study. A higher amount of Na+ was found in wheat genotype Zincol-16 while wheat genotype FSD-08 exhibit inferior Na+ levels with or without caffeic acid treatment. K+ can play a major role in osmotic adjustment and promote the activity and production of several enzymes contributed to carbohydrates and protein synthesis thus counterbalance the hazardous effects of salinity [51]. Application of caffeic acid to plants under saline environment counteract Na+ entry in roots and aid in balanced plant nutrition and K+ uptake, supplemental K+/Na+ ratio along with osmotic and stomatal regulation [52].

Overproduction of ROS induced toxicity in plants and caused damage to DNA and subcellular components which eventually results in cell damage [53]. As a consequence, plants activate and increase the production of various antioxidant enzymes (SOD, POD, CAT and APX) to scavenge ROS. Salt stress amends the amount and activities of these enzymes and lowers their ability to scavenge ROS results in cellular disruption [54]. Caffeic acid has also been recognized as an antioxidant enhancer and improves the activities of superoxide dismutase activity (SOD), peroxidase (POD) and ascorbate peroxidase activity (APX) activity in different plants that serve as the first line of defense to lower ROS production [26]. The present study suggests that the activities of these antioxidant enzymes are regulated in both wheat genotypes by the addition of caffeic acid that might protect wheat plants from oxidative stress and by regulating ROS scavenging enzymes under a saline environment.

The present study illustrates the effective role of caffeic acid application in increasing yield components (spike length, number of spikelets per plant, Number of grains per spike) and concentration of N, P and K in grains of wheat genotypes under salt stress. Increasing salt concentration severely decline yield and nutrient composition due to blockade of certain essential nutrients by the action of Na+, deteriorate photosynthesis, suppression of growth-promoting substances and reduced root/shoot ratio [55]. Our findings are in line with [56] who conclude that salinity reduced wheat yield attributes and nutrient status in grain. An increase in yield and nutrient status was prominent in wheat genotype FSD-08 under both levels of caffeic acid but maximum values were observed under elevated caffeic acid level (100 μM). This increase is attributed as a result of growth improving characteristics like increased root growth and plant biomass, more nutrients availability, uptake and transport in plant and higher enzymatic activity [57,58].

Conclusion

In the current study, alleviation of salinity stress in wheat genotypes (FSD-08 and Zincol-16) through exogenous application of caffeic acid was investigated. When exposed to salinity stress, wheat genotypes showed stunted growth, poor plant water contents and membrane de-stability, high Na+ contents, oxidative damage and imbalance in mineral nutrition. However, an increase in plant biomass, chlorophyll contents, higher K+ retention and enhanced activities of antioxidant enzymes along with increased yield and N, P, K contents conclude that exogenous provision of caffeic acid contributed to imparting salinity tolerance in wheat genotypes. Moreover, wheat genotype FSD-08 show more retention of mineral ions along with improved activities of antioxidant enzymes under a saline environment which helped to declare it more salt-tolerant as compared to wheat genotype Zincol-16. The results suggested that caffeic acid has a great potential in imparting salt tolerance in wheat and future research should be conducted to investigate the potential of caffeic acid in imparting salt tolerance in other crops.