Executive Function, Language Dominance and Literacy Skills in Spanish-speaking Language-minority Children: A Longitudinal Study.

In the U.S., children whose home language is Spanish are at increased risk for the development of reading difficulties. Studies have reported a link between executive function (EF) and reading; few studies have examined this linkage in Spanish-speaking language-minority (LM) children. This longitudinal study examined the association between preschool EF and kindergarten reading-related skills in 241 Spanish-speaking LM children (M-age in preschool = 54.23 months, SD = 6.17). In preschool, children completed measures of inhibitory control (IC) and working memory (WM) in their dominant language, and early literacy skills in Spanish and English. In the fall of their kindergarten year, children completed code- and language-related literacy measures in both languages. A two-factor model (IC and WM) accounted for children's preschool EF. Most zero-order correlations between EF factors and kindergarten outcomes in Spanish (rs = .03-.40) and English (rs = .05-.35) were statistically significant. For English-language outcomes, WM was more strongly associated with code-related skills and IC with language-related skills; for Spanish-language outcomes, WM was more strongly related to both code- and language- related skills than IC. There was little difference in the associations between EF and reading outcomes based on the language in which EF was measured (i.e., the child's dominant language). When controlling for early literacy skills in the same language as the kindergarten outcomes, EF contributed significant unique variance to kindergarten skills in English but not in Spanish. For Spanish language outcomes, early literacy skills appear to mediate the role of preschool EF. The results suggest that children's development in cognitive domains, such as EF, may have an important role in the acquisition of core early reading skills for Spanish-speaking LM children.