A convergent synthetic platform for dual anticancer drugs functionalized by reduced graphene nanocomposite delivery for hepatocellular cancer.

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is widespread cancer with a high degree of morbidity and mortality in individuals worldwide and a serious concern for its resistance to present chemotherapy drugs. In this investigation, the combination of cisplatin (CPT) and metformin (MET) to kill the HepG2 and caco-2 cells was developed into a new pH-responding magnetic nanocomposite based on reduced graphene oxide. Polyhydroxyethyl methacrylic (PHEA) was then linked employing grafting from approach to the reduced graphene oxide by ATRP polymerization (Fe3O4@rGO-G-PSEA). FT-IR, SEM, XRD, DLS, and TGA analyses evaluated physicochemical characteristics of the nanocomposite. In addition, the cellular uptake property of the nanocomposites was examined by the HepG2 cells. The outcomes of cell viability results indicate that the nanoparticles loaded with MET&CPT showed the lowest concentration rate of HepG2 and Caco-2 cells compared to the drug-loaded single nanocomposite groups and free drugs. The histological analysis has demonstrated relatively safe and does not produce different stress such as swelling and inflammation of the mice organs. Our results show the enhancement in cytotoxicity in HepG2 and Cocoa-2 cells by MET and CPT graphene oxide-based nanocomposite by promoting apoptotic response. Moreover, Fe3O4@rGO-G-PSEA showed potent in vivo antitumor efficacy but showed no adverse toxicity to normal tissues. Together, this study can provide insight into how surface embellishment may tune these nanocomposites' tumor specificity and provide the basis for developing anticancer efficacy.

Introduction

Liver cancer is the world's sixth-largest cancer. People with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) have a 5-year survival rate of barely 18% and are the second deadest tumor in the world since pancreatic cancer (Lee et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2017; Sun et al., 2019). HCC is the most frequent type of hepatic cancer in China, South-East Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa. Every year, China represents the great majority of the world's HCC mortality. Hepatectomies, image-guided tumor transcatheter therapy, liver transplant, arterial transcatheter (TACE), radiation, chemotherapy, and combination therapy are treatment options for HCC (Shangguan et al., 2008; Fan et al., 2021; Kim et al., 2021). Hepatectomy is the first-line therapy for early primary HCC (Barcelona Liver Cancer Clinic stage 0 or A). Following surgery, the mortality rate is minimal (<3%). However, in five years, up to 70% of the cases will return. The significant challenges to chemotherapy are the Multi-Resistance to Drugs (MDRs), and the drug toxicity currently lacks the selectivity for tumor tissues (Mora et al., 2017). HCC is a typical drug-resistant tumor in solid tumors and urgently needs approaches to combat MDR (Ahn et al., 2017; Li et al., 2018; van Breugel et al., 2019; Chang et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020; Zhao et al., 2020). The development of various tumor molecule-targeted treatments was made easy by advancements in medical research and technology in past years, with medicines that target particular molecules showing high success in treating HCC (Xia et al., 2021). Molecular therapies are more tumor-specific than standard chemotherapy drugs and more successful in targeting cancer cells (Hlady et al., 2019; Chi et al., 2020; Lu et al., 2020).

A flat monolayer, consisting of single-atomic, two-dimensional nanosheets of hexagonal shapes organized glaze, separated from crystalline graphite. The functions and implications of graphene have been given substantial attention since the material was discovered in 2004 due to its unique structure, particular diameter, and mechanical properties (Biju, 2014; Nurunnabi et al., 2015; Broza et al., 2018; Lai et al., 2018). Graphene and its variants are monolayer graphenes, small-layer graphs, oxides of graphene, reduction in graphene oxides (rGO), nanosheets of graphene (GNS), and nanoribbons of graphene. GO is one of the essential chemicals derivatives of the graphene family nanomaterials (GFNs), and its potential biological uses are more attractive (Yang et al., 2013; Liu et al., 2019; Karki et al., 2020). Materials based on graphs generally have a dimension ranging from a few to hundred nanometers and have a width of between 1 and 10 nm. Graphene methods have been extensively employed in several sectors, including energy storage, nano-electronic devices, batteries, bio-medical purposes, including antibacterials, biosensors, imaging cells, drug delivery, and tissue engineering because of their remarkable physical and chemical parameters (Yang et al., 2015; Krishnan et al., 2019; Mallick et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2019).

Poly-2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (PHEA) is a remarkable biocompatibility and blood compatibility among the polymers examined over past years. On the graphene surface oxide, several binding strategies (Kazantseva et al., 2018; Li et al., 2019; Lo et al., 2020; Nanda et al., 2021; Yin et al., 2021). The initiators are attached to the surface of graphene in the grafting process from the start, and the polymerization begins from the surface of the Graphene oxide (Hu et al., 2016). The grafting technique interacts with the polymer's graphene oxide surfaces and bonds with the appropriate functioning group. Graphene oxide is used for the grafting technique and is bonded to the modifier two times. Several types of research have been conducted to employ MET or CPT graphene oxide nanocomposites. However, its lower antitumor potency than free MET or CPT is the primary issue with GO-driven delivery methods (Shi et al., 2014; Keisham et al., 2016; Tade & Patil, 2020; Perumal et al., 2021).

Metformin (MET) has been widely studied in pilot studies and randomized controlled clinical trials as a therapy for NAFLD/NASH. A mixed bag of findings came out of the experiment. Alanine aminotransferase levels are lower, and insulin sensitivity is increased with metformin (Yin et al., 2013; Zheng et al., 2013; Brar et al., 2020). Therefore, NASH is not treated with metformin by the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases (Johnson et al., 2002). A study evaluating the preventive impact of metformin on HCC in NAFLD/NASH patients is not currently underway (Morgillo et al., 2017). Because metformin is the first-line medication for T2DM and up to two-thirds of T2DM patients have NAFLD, retrospective observational studies may offer helpful information regarding the relationship between metformin usage and the incidence of NASH-related HCC (Della Corte et al., 2016). It has been shown that the use of metformin in diabetic individuals with HCV cirrhosis reduces the incidence of HCC and the need for liver transplantation or liver-related death (Evans et al., 2005).

To synergize the delivery of the CPT&MET to HepG2 and Caco-2 cancer cells, this work aimed to establish a new GO-based nanomaterial. First, Polyhydroxyethyl methacrylate has been addressed in reducing graphene oxide by grafting polymerization technique. Then polyesterification using succinic anhydride and Poly(SEMA) is achieved by transforming PHEA hydroxy groups into succinyloxy groups. The interaction of its hydroxy groups with the carboxylic acid groups Poly is then absorbed onto the surface by the iron oxide nanoparticles (SEMA). Metformin and cisplatin are also influenced by ionic interaction, stacking, and bonding to hydrogen on nanocomposite. Finally, HepG2 and Caco-2 hepatocellular cell cancer cells examined the potential in combination chemotherapy in this new approach (Scheme 1).

Scheme 1.

The schematic representation of newly fabricated magnetic Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSEA nanocomposite for the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC).

Experimental section

Materials

Cisplatin (CPT), metformin (MET), 2-bromoisobutyryl bromide, succinic anhydride, N, N,N,N, N-pentamethyldiethylenetriamine (PMDETA), 2-Hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA), triethylamine (TEA) were purchased from TCI and used as received. Sodium bore hydride (NaBH4), ferric chloride hexahydrate (FeCl3.6H2O, 99%), ferrous chloride tetrahydrate (FeCl2.4H2O, 99%), sulfuric acid (H2SO4), sodium nitrate (NaNO3), dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), potassium permanganate (KMnO4) and graphite were purchased from Aladdin Reagents (Shanghai, China). Thiazolyl blue tetrazolium bromide (MTT), fetal bovine serum (FBS), rhodamine B, Roswell Park Memorial Institute 1640 growth medium (RPMI 1640), AO-EB, HOECHST 33342, Penicillin-streptomycin (100X), and EDTA 0.25% (1X) were purchased from Gibco Invitrogen. The other solvents and reagents were obtained from Sinopharm Chemical Reagent and used without further purification.

Fabrication of graphene oxide (GO)

3.0 g graphite powder, H2SO4 (180 ml), and NaNO3 (1.6 g, 18 mmol), in a flask and stirred at room temperature for around 30 min (R.T). The mixture, as mentioned above, was then eaten and mixed for KMnO4 (9.0 g, 57 mmol) at 35 °C for 7 h. KMnO4 (9.0 g, 57 mmol) were subsequently added into the reaction mixture, and a further 12 h at the same temperature continued to stir. The reaction blend of the dilution of the GO blend and reduction of the reactive KMnO4 was finally filled with 500 ml of deionized water and 30 ml of hydrogen peroxide (30 wt%). Hydrochloric acid (HCl) (1 mol−1) rinsed the product. Centrifugation and drying at 60 °C were carried out at the suspension (Wo et al., 2016; Yin et al., 2017; Lin et al., 2018).

Synthesis of reduced graphene oxide (rGO)

A reaction tube was charged with 6 mL of deionized water and 0.5 gram of GO, which was then subjected to sonication using a bath-type sonicator for 50 min to fabricate a homogenous suspension of GO. 5 g NaBH4 was saturated in 15 mL of distilled water in a vial. The solution was progressively poured into the GO dispersion. At 80 °C, the solutions flask was swirled for 1 h. After that, the rGO was centrifugated and dried under low pressure at 60 °C.

Synthesis of rGO-Br

A homogenous suspension of rGO was obtained by adding 0.5 g of rGO and 3 ml of triethylammonium chloride (TEA) to a reaction tube containing N, N-dimethylformamide (DMF), which was then sonicated for 30 min. Next, 2-Bromoisobutyryl bromide (0.5 mL) was added to the reaction tube, kept under argon protection, and agitated at room temperature for about 24 h. After that, the mixture was centrifuged to precipitate it, and it was washed with double distilled water before being dried in a hot air oven at R.T.

Synthesis of rGO-g-PHEA

rGO-Br (79 mg) and 5 mL dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) were poured into a flask. The solution was sonicated for 50 min with a bath-type sonicator to obtain a homogenous suspension of rGO-Br. After that, the flask was loaded with HEMA monomers (5.4 g), PMDETA (76 l), and CuBr (58 mg) to begin the reaction. Several pumps–thaw cycles were performed on the reaction mixture to expose it to argon flow. The reaction mixture was then agitated at 75° C under argon shielding for 24 h. The final products were centrifuged and put into 100 mL of cold methanol before drying in a vacuum oven at 25° C.

Synthesis of rGO-g-PSEA

The esterification process was responsible for forming succinic anhydride from the reaction of hydroxyl groups in PHEA. The flask was charged with the following ingredients: rGO-g-PHEA (0.3 g), succinic anhydride (0.3 g), and anhydrous pyridine (8 mL). The reaction mixture was stirred at R.T. for roughly 2 d under argon flow to achieve the desired reaction rate. Then, to remove any remaining succinic anhydride, the product was mixed with 25 mL of methanol before being dried under reduced pressure at 25 °C.

Synthesis of superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs)

The SPIONs were developed using the co-precipitation strategy, which was previously reported. First, the reaction mixture was heated to 80° C after being exposed to a very pure argon flow for 30 min, followed by the addition of 20 mL of FeCl2.4H2O, 99% (0.1 molL1), and 40 mL of FeCl3.6H2O, 98% (0.1 molL1), to the reaction mixture. The temperature of the reaction mixture was then increased to 90° C. Under rapid stirring, 10 mL of ammonia solution (containing 25% ammonium) was promptly added into the reaction mixture to complete the reaction. The resulting suspension was maintained at 80 °C for 1 h while being constantly stirred and then cooled to room temperature. It was discovered that the acquired SPIONs were black sediment that had been rinsed many times with water and ethanol until its pH had changed to neutral and that it had been dried overnight in a vacuum at R.T.

Synthesis of Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSEA magnetic nanocomposite

To obtain a homogenous solution of Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSEA magnetic nanocomposite, 200 mg of rGO/PSEA, 2 mL of DMSO, and 200 mg of SPIONs were charged into a flask and sonicated for 50 min with a bath type sonicator to establish a homogeneous suspension. Next, for approximately 48 h, the solution was dialyzed. Finally, the product was centrifuged for 5 min before drying in a vacuum oven and weighted to finish.

Characterization

The surface chemical modifications were characterized using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR; Bruker Vertex 70). The KBr pellets were processed by mixing 300 μg of the samples with 200 mg of KBr (spectroscopy grade, Sigma-Aldrich, Finland). We characterized the morphologies of the nanocomposites using a TEM (JEOL JEM-2100Plus 200 kV, Japan). We applied a dynamic light scattering detector (Zetasizer, Nano-ZS, Malvern, United Kingdom) to determine nanoparticles' particle size and zeta potential for the characterization of nanoparticles. The phased nature of the sample was determined by X-ray diffraction (XRD, Shimadzu XD-D1).

Synthesis of MET&CPT-loaded Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSEA

The membrane dialysis technique was used to construct the Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSEA magnetic Nanocomposite that was loaded with MET&CPT. To achieve this goal, 100 mg of Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSEA magnetic nanomaterials was dispersed in 2 mL DMSO using a bath-type sonicator for 30 min, followed by another 30 min of sonication. Then, the MET (5 mg) and CPT (5 mg) were added to the above solution and allowed to sit for 48 h under the dark condition to emulsify. It was then dialyzed against DI water after being placed into a dialysis membrane bag. A magnetic nanocomposite with MET&CPT loading was then collected using an external magnet. The amount of loaded MET and CPT was determined using UV-Vis absorbance at 480 and 310 nm wavelengths for MET and MET CPT, respectively.

In vitro release profile

A 40 mg sample of MET&CPT-loaded Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSEA magnetic nanocomposite was evaluated. The nanoparticles were placed in incubation and swirled at 250 rpm at 37 °C for an amount of time, after which 2 mL of PBS solution was added and removed at specific intervals. The absorbance of the samples was measured with a UV-Vis spectrophotometer at wavelengths of 310 and 480 nm. The standard curve was prepared to investigate the relationship between the released CP and MET (Shen et al., 2012; Alemi et al., 2020; Dolatkhah et al., 2020).

Cellular uptake studies

In this study, fluorescence microscopy was used to investigate the intracellular uptake of nanocomposites in the hepatocellular cell lines HepG2 and Caco-2. Rhodamine-B was used to label Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSEA, and MET&CPT was used to load Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSEA magnetic nanocomposite. The specific procedure for the manufacture of rhodamine-B labeled nanocomposites has already been published in detail elsewhere. On HepG2 and Caco-2 cells, intracellular absorption of rhodamine-B labeled Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSEA and MET&CPT loaded Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSEA magnetic nanocomposite was examined after one and 3 h of incubation with the approach that was previously described. The cells that did not receive any treatment served as a negative control. Using a fluorescent microscope, the cell uptake of rhodamine-B labeled nanocarriers was observed (Raja et al., 2021; Shekari et al., 2021; Wei et al., 2021).

In vitro cytotoxicity assay

The MTT assay technique was used to determine the cytotoxicity of newly synthesized nanocomposite and the antitumor activity of free single drugs (free MET and free CPT), free MET-CPT combination (2 D), blank nanocomposites (BNCs), single drug-loaded nanocomposites (NCs-MET and NCs-CPT), and co-drug-loaded nanocomposites (NCs-MET&CPT) on HepG2 and Caco-2 cells. Different samples were administered to HepG2 and Caco-2 cells, which were then incubated for 4 h. The cell viability of each treatment group was then determined using the MTT assay technique, which was performed under the previously described process (Mohamed Subarkhan et al., 2016; Subarkhan & Ramesh, 2016; Mohamed Kasim et al., 2018; Mohamed Subarkhan et al., 2019; Balaji et al., 2020; Sathiya Kamatchi et al., 2020).

Detection of apoptosis using AO and EB staining

The toxic effects of free CPT, CPT-loaded Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSMA nanocomposites (Nano CPT), free MET, MET-loaded Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSMA nanocomposites (Nano MET), combination of MET and CPT in the form of (CPT-MET) and MET&CPT-loaded Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSMA nanocomposites (Nano CPT-MET) on HepG2 and Caco-2 cells was examined by using double staining of acridine orange (AO) and ethidium bromide (EB). According to previously reported protocol, apoptosis and necrosis cells were noticed. Cell HepG2 and Caco-2 cells were treated for a mixture of EB (10 μl) and AO (10 μL) in PBS and were subjected to composites (30 μg/mL) for 24 h. A fluorescence microscope takes on the photomicrograph (Nikon Eclipse, Inc., Japan). This technique has been employed for apoptosis and live-cell qualitative analysis (Subarkhan & Ramesh, 2016; Mohamed Subarkhan et al., 2019).

Detection of nuclear apoptosis using HOECHST 33342 staining

The toxic effects of free CPT, CPT-loaded Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSMA nanocomposites (Nano CPT), free MET, MET-loaded Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSMA nanocomposites (Nano MET), combination of MET and CPT in the form of (CPT-MET) and MET&CPT-loaded Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSMA nanocomposites (Nano CPT-MET) on HepG2 and Caco-2 cells was examined by using HOECHST 33342. According to previously reported protocol, apoptosis, and necrosis cells, the damage was observed. Cell HepG2 and Caco-2 cells were treated for a mixture of HOECHST 33342 (10 μg/mL) in PBS and were subjected to composites (30 μg/mL) for 24 h. A fluorescence microscope takes on the photomicrograph (Nikon Eclipse, Inc., Japan). This technique has been employed for apoptosis and live-cell qualitative analysis (Shen et al., 2012; Yin et al., 2017; Alemi et al., 2020).

In vivo histopathological study

To evaluate the nontoxic effects of free CPT, CPT-loaded Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSMA nanocomposites (Nano CPT), free MET, MET-loaded Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSMA nanocomposites (Nano MET), and MET&CPT-loaded Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSMA nanocomposites (Nano CPT-MET), the present research was encouraged for histopathological analysis. Male Balb-c mice (aged six weeks, 18 ± 2 g) were acquired from the Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, PR. China and maintained under a standardized environmental situation at the ambient temperature of 25 °C. Animals were preserved with humanly health care and supplied with food and water ad libitum. A total of 12 mice were distributed into six groups. All group mice were treated with free CPT, free MET, Nano CPT, Nano MET, and Nano CPT-MET (40 μg/mL), and control group having 200 μL saline were intravenously (i.v.) administrated for every 3 d (1, 5, 9 d) by tail vein injection. For the whole experiment, the body weight has been included. The 22 d were measured by the tissue-to-body weight ratio (weight/mg), the liver, heart, kidney, lung, and spleen. The main organs have been dissected and fastened to the histopathological analysis using 10% of formalin embedded in paraffin, cut and stained by Hematoxylin and Eosin (H&E) for standard technology. Pictures were obtained with an optical microscope after staining (Sherwani et al., 2015; Guo et al., 2019; Park et al., 2019; Huang et al., 2020).

In vivo antitumor efficacy

The anticancer activity of nanocomposite was assessed using Balb-c nude mice (4–5 weeks old). HepG2 has been cultivated to 80% convergence in 90 mm tissue dishes in the human liver cancer cell line. The pellet was resuspended in PBS at a concentration of 4 °C following 5the cell collection to achieve a final concentration of 3 × 105 cells/mL. With a 250 μL cell solution containing 6 × 105 cells, the right flanks of the Balb-c nude mice were injected subcutaneously. The tumors at about 60 mm3 were split into six groups (n = 6 mice each group) 22 d after administration. The animals were then randomly assigned. Three times on days 0, 3, and 6, free CPT (5 mg/kg), free MET (5 mg/kg), Nano CPT (5 mg/kg), Nano MET (5 mg/kg), and Nano CPT-MET (5 mg/kg) were administered intravenously into mouse bearings with HepG2 xenografts. Saline, free CPT, and free MET have also been administered to control its therapeutic formulation (5 mg/kg). Bodyweight and volumes of tumors have been observed for 22 d and noticed. Calipers assessed the tumor lengths (L) and widths (W), and the tumor volume by formula V = (L-W2)/2, where W is short of L, was determined. At the end of the experiment, mice were killed by CO2 inhalation (Chen et al., 2015; 2015; Han et al., 2019; Li et al., 2020).

Results and discussion

GO, rGO, and GO-Br samples FTIR are indicated in Figure 1. At 1059, 1239, and 1177 cm−1, the distinctive GO peaks corresponded to the absorption range attributable to the stretching vibration of the etheric epoxy groups of C–O–C and C–O. Also, stretching vibrations of 1637 cm−1 and 1734 cm−1 were observed in the C=C aromatic rings and C=O in a carboxylic acid. In addition, the group hydroxyl was found to have a broad, strong, 3450 cm−1 band. After reduction, the main alterations in the FTIR rGO spectra were the extending aliphatic and aromatic C–H vibrations at 2902–2935 cm−1 and OH stretched at 3450 cm−1 area. Aromatic bands C=C were also substantially enhanced at 1400 cm−1. Also, hydroxylic stretching vibration intensity was improved, and functional oxygen peaks were reduced at 1059 and 1238 cm−1. A decreased O–H banding intensity and the development of the typical C-belt with the C-bromoisobutyryl bromide (C-Br) at 720 cm−1 revealed the successful creation of the ATRP initiator, and the peak of around 2905 cm−1 was shown to the C-H-bond stretching vibration of the C–Br group.

Figure 1.

FT-IR spectral analysis of GO, rGO, rGO-Br, rGO-g-PHEA, and rGO-g-PSEA.

FTIR spectrum was shown in Figure 1 to indicate the unique absorption bands in both the rGO-g-PHEA and rGO-g-PSEA. The FTIR spectrum of the rGO-g-PHEA shows the extended vibration of C–O–C to 1156 cm−1, C–O to 1370 cm−1, C–H to 1459 cm−1, and CO to 1735 cm−1, respected. At 2800–316 cm−1 area and the PHEA's hydroxyl group, aliphatic and aromatic C–H stretching vibrations were concentrated at 3465 cm−1 due to the wideband. After esterification with succinic anhydride, the FTIR spectrum has changed significantly due to creating additional C–O and carboxylic acid groups, respectively, after synthesizing rGO g-PHEA with succinic anhydride.

The morphology of synthesized nanocomposites has been confirmed by FE-SEM GO, rGO-g-PHEA, rGO-g-PSEA, and Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSEA magnetic nanocomposite samples. FESEM image from GO indicated the layer structure for GO sheets in the whole area with smaller layers in the range of 28.44 nm, as shown in Figure 2(A). The surface of the GO nanosheet was coated with polymeric chains. Chain increases and immobilizes in the GO-g-PHEA (Figure 2(B)) and the GO-g-PSEA chain (Figure 2(C)). The Nanocomposite morphology is folded, and the nanocomposite's average wrinkled diameters reach 59.42 ± 5 nm. Fe3O4 was found with a spherical shape on GO plates in the 37.74 ± 4 NM region in rGO-g-PSEA, Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSEA magnetic nanocomposite (Figure 2(D)).

Figure 2.

Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of (A) GO, (B) rGO-g-PHEA, (C) rGO-g-PSEA, and (D) magnetic Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSEA nanocomposite.

Figure 3(A) shows the X-ray diffraction patterns (XRD) acquired from the magnetic nanocomposite Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSEA. The peak positions of the identifying peaks are about 2θ = 18.65, 30.38 (35.58), 43 (54.4) and 57.16 and 64.04 correspondingly, which corresponds to Fe3O4 crystal (111), (222), (313), (400), (513), and (440). Furthermore, the failure to emerge the peak at 2–26/09 showed that GO was precisely synthesized and that the graphite was changed absolutely from GO. The lack of the decisive peak in the 2–11.21 range, coupled with a vast (002) peak and a shallow (100) peak in the 2–2 versus 25.02–42.39 range, decreased the GO to rGO. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) assigned Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSEA magnetic nanocomposite. The pictures of the nanocomposite with the DLS intensity distribution are shown in Figure 3(B). The mean magnetic nanocomposite size of Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSEA was 63.4 nm (Abu Lila et al., 2021; Azerbaijan et al., 2021; Campbell et al., 2021).

Figure 3.

(A) X-ray pattern profile of the magnetic Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSEA nanocomposite. (B) Dynamic light scattering (DLS) analysis of magnetic Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSEA nanocomposite at pH= 7.4. (C) Thermogravimetry (TG) curves analysis of the GO, rGO-Br, rGO-g-PHEA, and rGO-g-PSEA samples.

Thermogravimetric measurement was conducted to determine the thermal stability of the GO, rGO-g-PHEA, rGO-g-PSEA, and Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSEA magnetic nanocomposite samples (Figure 3(C)). Because of evaporation water molecules, the rGO mass loss was detected at under 100 °C at the range of 4.48 Wt. The weight of CO2, CO, and steam emissions from the function groups and the degradation of even more stable oxygen functions, respectively, showed a reduction of 26.30% between 110 and 500 °C. Due to removing the initiator and the breakdown of oxygen functionalities comparable to the rGO TGA models, the rGO-Br initiator showed somewhat continuous weight loss from around 20% to 500 °C. The mass losses under rGO-g-PHEA were reported below 100 °C in the range of 7.103% owing to water molecules' evaporation. Initial weight loss (31.47 wt. %) is linked to CO2, CO, and GO steam emission between 110 and 230 °C. A breakdown of PHEA might be associated with the weight loss of around 25.29% between 230 and 500 °C. The overall weight loss in rGO-PSEA was raised from 56.87% to 72.40%, showing that effective polymer chains have been introduced with succinic anhydride. PHEA's success was about 16% of succinic anhydride binding.

Simultaneous MET and CPT loading and in vitro release profiles

π–π-stacking interaction between a large π-conjugated GO-conjugation and a quinone component of MET has adhered to GO nanoparticles with metformin (MET). MET is positive at normal pH, whereas carboxy groups are negatively charged on the surface of the particles. Thus, MET could quickly be loaded into polymers through electrostatic interactions and the creation of amide and hydrogen bonds. CPT is related to the polymer and covalent binding of Pt of CPT amine groups of CPT with the Carboxyl group (–COOH), with the nanocomposite group (–COOH). MET&CPT's drug administered behavior in phosphate buffers with the pH 7.4 and 5.4 pH analog of physiological circumstances was described using Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSEA magnetic nanocomposite. A slight reduction of extracellular pH (6–7), which decreases further into the cellular cells, notably into endosomes (5–6) and lysosomes (pH 4–5.0), may result in specific cancers. Consequently, these properties might be employed for the appropriate design and improvement of pH-sensitive nanocarriers' efficiency and therapeutic effectiveness that intelligently separate normal from malignant tissues. We used pH 5.4 to replicate the condition of the tumor endosome. Figure 4 shows release curves, which have been studied using UV-Vis spectroscopy with a predefined period in several nanocomposite samples. Measured to 75 and 82% respectively for MET&CPT and MET and CP, encapsulation efficiency (EE) values of Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSEA magnetic nanocomposite have been estimated.

Figure 4.

In vitro, drug release profiles of MET&CPT loaded magnetic Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSEA nanocomposites at different temperatures.

Intracellular uptake studies

The intracellular uptake is a crucial aspect in showing the ability to treat cancer of the synthesized nanocomposite. To evaluate the capacity of newly established nanocomposites to increase MET and CPT accumulation in cells, the penetration of Fe3O4@rGo-g-PSEA into hepatocellular cells, HepG2 and Caco-2, was studied. Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSEA Figure 5 shows fluorescent HepG2 and CACO-2 cell pictures after 1 and 3 h of Rhodamin-B incubation with Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSEA and MET&CPT of magnetic nanocomposites loaded with Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSEA. The findings indicated that nanocomposites were time-dependent on the absorption of the HepG2 and Caco-2 cells. The cells absorbed the nanocomposites in the early 1 h, and after 3 h incubation, internalization is adequate. The discovered red fluoridation for cytoplasms shows Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSEA, and MET&CPT loaded rhodamine B labeled Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSEA are primarily examined in the cytoplasm Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSEA (Figure 5).

Figure 5.

Rhodamine-B labeled HepG2 and Caco-2 cells cellular uptake. (A) Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSEA. (B) MET&CPT loaded magnetic Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSEA nanocomposite examined by fluorescence microscope after 1 and 3 h.

Cell viability assay

MTT testing technique evaluated single or double nanocomposites and free drugs (Figure 6). The outcomes revealed substantial cytotoxicity in HepG2 and Caco-2 cells at 48 h (Figure 6(A,B)), at doses up to 250 mg/mL, to the Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSEA nanocomposite with various concentrations. In addition, individual nanocomposites with single and dual drug loading (Nano MET, Nano CPT, Nano MET&CPT) had a higher mortality level than free MET, CPT, and MET&CPT. Compared to similar single forms, the combined forms (MET&CPT and Nano MET&CPT) were also more effective (Nano MET, Nano CPT, MET, and CPT). After 24 h at exposures of 1.94 μg/mL, 35.35 μg/mL, and 1.89 μg/mL, the half limit inhibitory (IC50) concentration of the MET, CPT, and MET&CPT of hepG2 and Caco-2 cells, respectively. In addition, 1.255 μg/mL, 11.01 μg/mL, and 0.798 μg/mL were derived from the IC50 amounts of the MET NPs, CPT NPs, and MET&CPT NPs (Figure 6(C,D)). For a more substantial lethal effect than free drugs on nanocomposites, high internalization of the drug-loaded nanocomposites is possible, leading to increased MET and CPT intracellular concentration and, therefore, contributing to the saturation of MDR proteins.

Figure 6.

(A–D) In vitro cytotoxicity of the nanocomposites with different concentrations of free CPT, CPT NP, free MET, MET NP, free MET&CPT, and MET&CPT NP.

Induced apoptosis

Cell morphological assessment using fluorescent dye distinguishes the integrity of chromatin and the plasma membrane of healthy apoptotic and necrotic cells (Figure 7(A)). HepG2 and Caco-2 untreated cells showed AO dye fluorescence (green) without EB stain (red) that offers a healthy cell. However, more apoptotic and necrotic cells with orange fluorescence were seen to be subjected to all composites (30 μg/mL) for 24 h. This result showed that the cells had disrupted the plasma membrane and EB was easier to stain and produce orange fluorescence (Figure 7(A)). These findings indicate that the plasma membrane of cells treated with composites was affected (Figure 7). The apoptotic and necrotic cell percentages in HepG2 and the Caco-2 cells are shown in Figure 7(B).

Figure 7.

(A) AO-EB image of HepG2 and the Caco-2 cells shows live and apoptotic cells. (B) Percentage of apoptotic cells ratio 24 h. Scale bar 20 µm.

HOECHST 33342 staining for nuclear apoptosis

HOECHST 33342 is cell-permeable and well adherent to the adenine-thymine-rich region of the minor DNA groove. It is already established. Interestingly, modifications were found between control and treatment of composite cancer cells (30 μg/mL) over 24 h for apoptosis inductance. The control cells exhibited a typical round integrated nucleus and organized morphology with HOECHST 33342 staining emitting a reduced blue fluorescence (Figure 8(A)). The treated composites had aglow blue color emissions from the apoptotic nuclei, recognized by the nuclear membrane boundaries for condensed and disintegrated nuclei and chromatin. It was observed that apoptosis induction had been increased in cells treated with composites. This examination showed that composites triggered a slowdown in cell growth. The apoptotic and necrotic cell percentages in HepG2 and the Caco-2 cells are shown in Figure 8(B).

Figure 8.

(A) HOECHST-33342 image of HepG2 and the Caco-2 cells shows nuclear damaged apoptotic cells. (B) Percentage of nuclear damaged apoptotic cells ratio 24 h. Scale bar 20 µm.

Histopathological study

In vivo investigation of the systemic toxicity effects of nanocomposites on the biological system. We have employed Hematoxylin and Eosin stains from nanocomposites treated tissues from mice for this investigation. This investigation resulted in a gradual loss of weight for cisplatin. Interestingly, the cisplatin-mediated weight reduction was reduced by the combination of metformin and cisplatin. Reduced intake and weight loss in individuals undergoing cisplatin treatment are severe health problems. Relatively, in the nanocomposite mice treated group, no pathological evidence has been identified, and it shows no toxicity for central bodies with nanocomposites. We also collectively conclude that the alterations between the major treatment nanocomposite organs and the saline control group, as illustrated in Figure 9, have not been found. However, as the use of linked nanomaterials is enormous, nanocomposites in the principal tissues of live organisms might contribute to bioaccumulation after various diseases. Thus, the toxicity of nanomaterial must be carefully considered assessed. In this work, these kinds of nanocomposites can be used for the therapeutic purpose against hepatocellular carcinoma.

Figure 9.

In vivo systemic toxicity examination of the various formulation on mice organs such as liver, lung, heart, spleen, and kidney. The saline group was used as a negative control. Scale bar 100 µm.

All the animal experiments were performed under protocols approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) of the Department of Interventional Radiology, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University. We next examined the treatment effectiveness of the tumor model with xenograft mice. We have developed the human tumor model HepG2 in Balb/c nude mice for this examination. The tumor volume in each group was recorded after intravenous injection of free CPT (5 mg/kg), free MET (5 mg/kg), Nano CPT (5 mg/kg), Nano MET (5 mg/kg), and Nano CPT-MET (5 mg/kg). As Figure 10 shows, the tumors showed fast and persistent development in the saline-treated mouse. Its therapeutic formulation, cytotoxic free CPT, and free MET, administered at a 5 mg/kg dose, have inhibited tumor development. A substantial reduction in Hep G2, with tumor deterioration in three out of six mice, was achieved by the 5 mg/kg dosage scheme of Nano CPT-MET. More notably, 5 mg/kg of Nano CPT-MET delivery during the therapeutic trial resulted in a lasting tumor reduction. The mouse showed no decreased body weight at this dosage, suggesting that the drugs were better tolerant. However, it is essential to note that although free CPT and free MET had less therapeutic properties than Nano CPT-MET, the proportional increase in toxicity resulted in an unwanted loss of body weight of 15% for the mice (Figure 10(A–D)). The substantial systemic toxicity of free CPT and free MET has considerably reduced its maximum tolerated dosage in the clinical environment. Low toxicity was found in nude mice carrying HepG2 tumor xenografts, caused by Nano CPT-MET, with a high dose, which showed that our combinational-drug conjugate method might have common side effects affecting therapeutic efficacy. In H&E staining, more significant areas of necrosis were found in the groups of 5 mg/kg dose of Nano CPT-MET treatment (Figure 10(E)). In brief, the results above clearly displayed that Nano CPT-MET successfully inhibited the tumors growth model in vivo.

Figure 10.

In vivo anticancer efficacy of saline (1), free CPT (2), free MET (3), Nano CPT (4), Nano MET (5), and Nano CPT-MET (6) examined in nude mice HepG2 xenograft model. (A) The growth curves of xenograft tumor inoculated on nude mice treated with 5 mg/kg. (B) The images of tumors and representative mice in each group were taken at the end of treatment. (C) Body weight of the mice. (D) Tumor weight of the mice. (E) Tumor inhibition efficacy was investigated by H&E staining analysis.

Conclusion

A unique stimuli-responsive nanocomposite was developed using graphene Oxide and was then bonded to magnetic nanocomposites (Fe3O4@rGO-G-PSEA) using Poly (hydroxyethyl methacrylate grafted to succinic anhydride). Application for the first time to co-purchase MET and CPT was made to Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSEA nanocomposite. MET (75%) and CPT (82%) simultaneous encapsulation were used on this new system via ion interactions, π-π conjugation, and hydrogen bonding. This new system was developed. The created nanosystems demonstrated a pH-controlled releasing behavior that was concurrently released at pH 5.4 after 24 h, 60 and 50% of CPT and MET. Although at pH 7.4, around 40% and 30% of CPT and MET were released after the same duration. In vitro cytotoxic testing, nanocomposites from Fe3O4@rGO-g-PSEA were not cytotoxic at a 250 μg/mL concentration for HepG2 and Caco-2. Most importantly, after initial exposure (1–3 h), this new MET&CPT-loading nanocomposite Fe3O4@rGO-G-PSEA showed excellent cellular use.

Further, the systemic toxic profile of the nanocomposite reveals that the ideal toxicity property compares to other nanocomposites and free drugs. Moreover, in the present investigation, the in vivo effectiveness of Fe3O4@rGO-G-PSEA was assessed, which was not before reported. Not all Fe3O4@rGO-G-PSEA with excellent in vitro cancer effectiveness have an equal in vivo efficacy. These results have shown that hepG2 and Caco-2 hepatocellular carcinoma cell destruction may be successfully used in the combination therapy.